3.2 East Africa / Afrique de l'Est

3.2.1 Djibouti (F)

INTRODUCTION

Principaux Produits Forestiers Non Ligneux

Les plantes fourragères (Acacia spp.) sont le produit forestier non ligneux principal de Djibouti.

Les autres produits forestiers non ligneux (PFNL) utilisés à Djibouti sont les tanins, les matériaux de construction (branches et feuilles du palmier Doum Hyphaene thebaica), les plantes médicinales, les plantes comestibles (e.g. feuilles de Cissus sp.) et le miel.

Informations générales

La FAO (1987) décrit l'utilisation des plantes fourragères, médicinales et comestibles, du miel, du gibier et des matériaux de construction dans la forêt du Day par la population locale:

· Cette forêt est fortement utilisée pour l'alimentation du cheptel.

· Les principales plantes médicinales fréquemment utilisées sont entre autres Aloe trichosantha, Terminalia sp., Ziziphus sp., Dodonaea viscosa et Solanum incanum. Ces plantes ne sont pas commercialisées, mais les tradipraticiens demandent une récompense pour leur application.

· Pour améliorer la qualité des régimes monotones, les pasteurs ramassent régulièrement des fruits et des feuilles. Surtout la collecte des graines sauvages est particulièrement développée chez les éleveurs de la zone forestière.

· La collecte du miel est faite occasionnellement, tandis que des activités apicoles ont été beaucoup plus importantes dans le passé.

· Malgré la richesse de la forêt du Day en gibier, la chasse n'a pas une place importante dans la vie de la population.

PLANTES ET PRODUITS VEGETAUX

Fourrage

"Le principal usage de la végétation forestière reste avant tout le pacage. Les zones méridionales de transhumance constituent des parcours collectifs ouverts à tous, alors que les parcours forestiers du Nord sont érigés en propriétés tribales dont une partie est mise en défense et n'est ouverte qu'en périodes de disette. Durant ces périodes, l'émondage des arbres, parfois sévère, est fréquemment effectué afin de sauver les troupeaux menacés par la famine. Ces parcours qui jouissent d'un statut foncier et social adéquat sont affectés aux troupeaux selon leur nature. Les bovins, race afar à lyre haute et à petite bosse, pesant entre 200 et 250 kg, pâturent exclusivement en forêt (monts Goda et Mabala). Les petits ruminants de format réduit (2/3 caprins, 1/3 ovins) se voient relégués dans les formations couvertes d'Acacia et les zones très dégradées. Les dromadaires n'ont pas de parcours définis et endommagent lourdement les parcours forestiers" (FAO, 1984:4).

REFERENCES

FAO. 1984. Rapport au gouvernement de la République de Djibouti sur le développement forestier et la lutte contre la désertification, par El Hamrouni. Projet TCP/DJI/4401. Rome

FAO. 1987. Etude socio-économique dans le cadre de l'aménagement intégré de la forêt du Day, par Guedda Mohamed Ahmed, M. Projet TCP/DJI/86/4507. Rome

REMERCIEMENTS

Ce rapport a été réalisé grâce au financement du Programme de Partenariat UE-FAO «Collecte et analyse des données pour un aménagement durable de la Forêt dans les pays A.C.P.». Le contenu est basé sur l'information accessible au siège central de la FAO à Rome.

Des informations supplémentaires sur les PFNL de Djibouti seraient bienvenues et reconnues en bonne et due forme.

3.2.2 Eritrea (E)

INTRODUCTION

Main Non-Wood Forest Products

The most important non-wood forest products (NWFP) of Eritrea are exudates (gum arabic, olibanum) and dried leaves of doum palm (Hyphaene thebaica).

Other NWFP include edible and medicinal plants, fibres, tannins and oils.

General Information

Bein et al. (1996) identified 195 tree and shrub species that can be used as food and medicine (142 species), fodder (138 species), as well as for various other purposes (e.g. fibres, resins, tannins, oils - 127 species). In 1995, 22 commonly used species for non-wood purposes, were reported as being endangered (Government of Eritrea,1995).

The cactus plant (Opuntia spp.) grows profusely in Eritrea, and has adapted perfectly to the semi-arid zones of the country characterized by drought conditions. It covers about 10 000 ha and thus contributes to counter drought hardships as it serves as a life-saving crop to both humans and animals (Ministry of Agriculture,1998).

PLANTS AND PLANT PRODUCTS

Exudates

Gum arabic (Acacia senegal) and olibanum resins, mainly derived from Boswellia papyrifera, are traditional NWFP of Eritrea. Statistical information on these exudates is limited to quantities that are exported since they are subject to taxation. In 1997, 543 t of olibanum and 49 t of gum arabic were exported.

Table 1. Exports of gum arabic and olibanum from Eritrea (in tons)

Source: Ministry of Agriculture (1998)

Since 1992, about 800 000 seedlings of Acacia senegal and 500 000 seedlings of Boswellia olibanum have been planted at the national level (Ministry of Agriculture, 1998).

Utensils, handicrafts and construction materials

Dried leaves from the doum palm Hyphaene thebaica are considered as one of the most important Eritrean NWFP. In 1997, 2 064 t of dried leaves were exported to Ethiopia (Ministry of Agriculture, 1998).

Table 2. Exports of doum palm leaves (in tons)

Source: Ministry of Agriculture (1998)

REFERENCES

Bein, E., Habte, B., Jaber, A., Birnie, A. & Tengnas, B. 1996. Useful trees and shrubs in Eritrea. Technical Handbook No 12. Nairobi Regional Soil Conservation Unit.

Government of Eritrea. 1995. National Environmental Plan for Eritrea.

Ministry of Agriculture. 1998. Forestry data report on Eritrea. In EC/FAO/UNEP. Proceedings of sub-regional workshop on forestry statistics - IGAD region. Rome.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This report has been realized thanks to the funding of the EC-FAO Partnership Programme "Data Collection and Analysis for Sustainable Forest Management" in ACP Countries. The content is based on available information at FAO Headquarters in Rome, as well as on information provided by Mr Elias Araya from the Department of Land Resources and Crop Production, Ministry of Agriculture of Eritrea.

Additional information on NWFP in Eritrea would be appreciated and duly acknowledged.

QUANTITATIVE DATA ON NWFP OF ERITREA

Importance: 1- high importance on the national level; 2 - high importance at the local/regional level; 3 - low importance
Part used: an - entire animal; ba - bark; bw - beeswax; le - leaves; nu - nuts; fi - fibres; fl - flowers; fr - fruits; gu - gums; ho - honey;
la - latex; oi - oil; pl - entire plant; re - resins; ro - roots; sa - sap; se - seeds; st - stem; ta - tannins
Habitat: F - natural forest or other wooded lands; P - plantation; O - others: trees outside forests (e.g. agroforestry, homegardens)
Source: W - wild, C - cultivated
Destination: N - national; I - international

3.2.3 Ethiopia (E)

INTRODUCTION

Main Non-Wood Forest Products

The most important non-wood forest products (NWFP) of Ethiopia are exudates, medicinal plants, honey and beeswax.

Other NWFP include edible leaves, fodder, latex, tannins, incenses, spices, dyestuffs and ropes.

General Information

In Ethiopia, a variety of NWFP are used. FAO (1990) describes the exploitation of fodder, latex (from Landolphia sp.), tannins, medicinal plants, incenses and spices, dyestuffs, gums, ropes as well as honey and beeswax. Bekele-Tesemma et al. (1993) identified 199 tree and shrub species that were used for food and medicines (123 species), fodder (108 species), as well as for various other purposes (e.g. fibres, resins, tannins, oils - 117 species). Important edible NWFP are Pterocarpus sp. and Myrianthus sp. They are highly valued in the dry season, when the leaves of few other vegetables are available (Falconer, 1990).

PLANTS AND PLANT PRODUCTS

Medicines

Traditional medicine is used by a large segment of the population in Ethiopia. It is one of the most important ways of making a livelihood for those who have no other means of income and it is also the most important way of getting relief from various diseases. Over 85 percent of the rural population, plus an increasing number of the poor in urban centres, utilize many of the available plants, as well as products from wild animals and minerals as their primary source of health care.

The use of traditional medicine is increasing compared to the past because modern medicine has become very expensive and beyond the reach of most inhabitants. The value and role of traditional health care systems will not diminish in the future because they are both culturally viable and expected to remain affordable.

Ethiopia has a long history of traditional health care based largely on rich though unstandardized pharmacopoeia, used both by the local population (especially women) and traditional health practitioners (THPs). The efficacy of a few of these plants (Hagenia abyssinica and Glinus lotoides for the treatment of tapeworm, and Phytolacca dodecandra as a molluscicide in the control of schistosomiasis), has been scientifically determined but the safety and efficacy of many others in the treatment of various diseases remains underdeveloped.

On record there are 600 species of medicinal plants constituting a little over ten percent of Ethiopia's vascular flora. They are distributed all over the country, with greater concentration in the south and south-western part of the country. The woodlands of Ethiopia are the source of most of the medicinal plants followed by the montane grassland/dry montane forest complex of the plateau. Other important vegetation types for medicinal plants are the evergreen bushland and rocky areas. The uncontrolled use of plants, particularly their roots and the whole plant, can easily lead to their destruction. Some of them may already be endangered.

Table 1. Most common medicinal plants sold by vendors on Ethiopian markets

Source: Dessisa (1997)

Exudates

Reliable data on the production and utilization of exudates in Ethiopia is not available. While the national average annual output of exudates during the period 1978-1991 exceeds 1 500 t, much higher figures are registered for the seasons 1983/84 and 1984/85, i.e. 3 500 t and 4 200 t respectively. Since 1992 production has levelled to over 2 000 t/a.

Exudates are obtained from a considerable number of Ethiopian shrubs and trees, partly by active tapping and partly by simple collection of gum that occasionally "oozes" from some tree species without any need for human interference. The following products and species appear to play a significant role: olibanum (80% of total output of resins of this type), gum arabic (14%) and myrrh (6%).

Olibanum resins (also called olibanum Tigray type or frankincense) are mainly obtained from Boswellia papyrifera. This plant is found in large amounts in the Tigray, Gondar, Wollega and Gojjam provinces and sparsely spread in Wello and Shewa. Other species yielding similar resins are Boswellia ogadensis, (Hararghe, Bale, Sidamo, Gamu Gofa) and Boswellia rivae (Sidamo, Gamo Gofa), Boswellia sacra and Boswellia freeriana.

Olibanum is used as fragrance as well as for flavouring purposes. Ethiopia is (together with Sudan) the world's largest producer of olibanum. According to a 1981 estimate, the potential production in Ethiopia is believed to reach 23 000 t (FAO, 1995b). About 1 500 t/a of olibanum are sold through the official trading channels with nearly 50 percent of the production absorbed by export markets.

Exploitation of olibanum is one of the top employment generating activities in the remotest parts of Ethiopia. At the national level, the number of seasonal workers engaged in tapping and grading is estimated to range between 20 000 and 30 000 per year. In addition, it is a very important source of income for most rural people.

Gum arabic is obtained from natural stands and plantations of Acacia senegal, which occur in significant amounts in the provinces of Gojjam and Gondar along the Sudan border. A gum of a lower quality, also sold under the name of gum arabic, is obtained from natural stands of Acacia seyal, a species widely found in the Rift valley depression, especially on sites subject to annual waterlogging. A gum of relatively low quality is also obtained from Acacia drepanolobium, a low shrub of the southern-most part of the country, as well as from A. polyacantha.

Gums are harvested through tapping in northern Ethiopia, whereas in the south-western part of the country only natural gums are collected by the nomads. Trade is controlled by the Natural Gums Processing and Marketing Enterprise, which regulates prices and trade in gum arabic in Ethiopia (Nour, 1995).

Table 2. Annual production of gum arabic in the period 1988-1994

Source: Nour (1995)

Myrrh, the third valuable exudate, may be considered the one with the highest value. This resin is obtained from a small shrub, Commiphora myrrh, that is principally found in Ogaden, Bale and Sidamo.

ANIMALS AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS

Honey and beeswax

Beekeeping is an ancient tradition in Ethiopia. The density of hives is estimated to be the highest in Africa. An estimated 4-10 million traditional hives and some 10 000 modern box hives are believed to exist in the country. The main products of the beekeeping industry are honey and wax. Honey is almost exclusively used for local consumption, while a considerable proportion of wax is exported. The annual turnover of the apiculture industry is estimated to vary between US$26 million and 64 million. Honey and beeswax also play a considerable role in the cultural and religious life of the Ethiopians.

Total estimated honey production in Ethiopia, as indicated by the International Trade Center (ITC) in 1986, ranged from 19 400 t/a to 21 000 t/a in the 1976-1983 period. This represented 23.28 percent of total honey production in Africa and 2.03 percent of total world production in 1976. This figure increased to 23.58 and 2.13, respectively, of total African and total world honey production in 1983. There has been a further increase in honey production over the period 1984-1994, i.e. from 21 480 t in 1984 to 23 700 t in 1994 (FAO, 1998b). In 1996, 3 862 t of honey, worth US$12 015 000, were exported from Ethiopia (FAO, 1998a). At world level, Ethiopia ranges tenth in honey production.

Annual production of wax is estimated at 3 200 t. This estimate does not include beeswax produced in remote areas where it is usually wasted. Thus, after China, Mexico and Turkey, Ethiopia is the fourth largest wax producing country and one of the five biggest wax exporters to the world market. On average 270 t/a were exported during the period 1984-1994, which in turn generated an income of over Br2 million per annum to the national economy.

Table 3. Exports of honey and beeswax from Ethiopia

Source: Ministry of Trade and Industry (1994)

Although annual production of both honey and wax is large compared to other African countries, the system of production commonly utilized in the country is traditional. Productivity of the honeybees is very low and on average a yield of only 5-6 kg of honey per hive per year can be obtained. However, in areas where improved technology has been introduced an average of 15-20 kg/hive/year has been recorded.

The main resource base for beekeeping - forests and woodlands - has become seriously degraded in the course of time. Eucalyptus plantations have been established in some localities and constitute a new and complementary honey resource. In many places the beekeepers themselves have endeavoured to redress the situation by planting good honey plants near their hive colonies, such as Vernonia amygdalina and Salvia spp.

REFERENCES

Bekele-Tesemma, A., Birnie, A. & Tengnas, B. 1993. Useful trees and shrubs for Ethiopia. Technical Handbook No 5. Nairobi. Regional Soil Conservation Unit /SIDA.

Biodiversity Institute (BDI). 1998. Draft proceedings of the national workshop on biodiversity conservation and sustainable use of medicinal plants In Ethiopia, 26 April-1 May 1998. Addis Ababa.

Chikamai, B. 1997. Production, markets and quality control of gum arabic in Africa: Findings and recommendations from an FAO project. In J.O. Mugah, B.N. Chikamai & E. Casadei, eds. Conservation, management and utilization of plant gums, resins and essential oils. Proceedings of a regional conference for Africa held in Nairobi, Kenya, 6-10 October 1997.

Cunningham, A.B. 1997. An Africa-wide overview of medicinal plant harvesting, conservation and health care. In Global Initiative for Traditional Systems of Health & FAO, eds. Medicinal plants for forest conservation and health care. FAO Non-Wood Forest Products Series No.11. Rome.

Dessisa, D. 1997. Economic value of medicinal plants in Ethiopia - A case study. Paper prepared for the National workshop on biodiversity conservation and sustainable use of medicinal plants in Ethiopia, 26 April 26-1 May 1998, Addis Ababa.

Edwards, S., Taddesse, M. & Hedberg I., eds. 1995. Flora of Ethiopia. Vol. II. Addis Ababa.

Falconer, J. 1990. "Hungry season" food from the forest. Unasylva, 41(160): 14-19.

FAO. 1988. Report of the mission to Ethiopia on tropical forestry action plan. Rome

FAO. 1990a. Country profile Ethiopia. Rome

FAO. 1990b. Informal surveys to assess social forestry at Dibandiba and Aleta Wendo, Ethiopia, by J. Kahurananga. Addis Ababa.

FAO. 1995a. Edible nuts, by G.E. Wickens. FAO Non-Wood Forest Product Series No. 5. Rome.

FAO. 1995b. Flavours and fragrances of plant origin, by J.J.W. Coppen. Non-Wood Forest Products Series No. 1. Rome.

FAO. 1998a. FAO Statistics. In Internet http://www.fao.org

FAO. 1998b. Non-wood forest products of Ethiopia, by G. Deffar. EC-FAO Partnership Programme, Project GCP/INT/679/EC. Rome

Fichtl, R. & Adi, A. 1994. Honeybee flora of Ethiopia. Addis Ababa.

Forestry Department. 1997. Tekeze River basin integrated development master plan project. Ministry of Water Resources, Volume NR7, Addis Ababa.

Medhin, G. 1997. Boswellia papyrifera from Western Tigray - Opportunities, constraints and seed germination response. MSc thesis, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences.

Ministry of Agriculture. 1998. Forestry data on Ethiopia. In EC/FAO/UNEP. Proceedings of sub-regional workshop on forestry statistics - IGAD region. Rome

Ministry of Trade and Industry. 1994. Annual external trade statistics, 1984-1994. Addis Ababa.

Mugabe, J. & Clark, N. 1998. Managing biodiversity. National systems of conservation and innovation in Africa. African Centre for Technology Studies. Nairobi, ACTS Press.

Natural Gum Production and Marketing Enterprise (NGPME). 1997. Annual enterprise statistics. Addis Ababa.

Natural Resource Management and Regulatory Department (NRMRD) 1998. Agro-ecological zones of Ethiopia. Ministry of Agriculture. Addis Ababa.

Nour, H.O.A. 1995. Quality control of gum arabic. Mission report TCP/RAF/4557. Khartoum.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This report has been realized thanks to the funding of the EC-FAO Partnership Programme "Data Collection and Analysis for Sustainable Forest Management in ACP Countries". The content is mainly based on available information at FAO Headquarters in Rome, as well as on information provided by Mr Deffar, Natural Resources Management and Regulatory Department, Ministry of Agriculture.

Additional information on NWFP in Ethiopia would appreciated and duly acknowledged.

QUANTITATIVE DATA ON NWFP OF ETHIOPIA

Importance: 1- high importance on the national level; 2 - high importance on the local/regional level; 3 - low importance
Part used: an - entire animal; ba - bark; bw - beeswax; le - leaves; nu - nuts; fi - fibres; fl - flowers; fr - fruits; gu - gums; ho - honey;
la - latex; oi - oil; pl - entire plant; re - resins; ro - roots; sa - sap; se - seeds; st - stem; ta - tannins
Habitat: F - natural forest or other wooded lands; P - plantation; O - others: trees outside forests (e.g. agroforestry, homegardens)
Source: W - wild, C - cultivated
Destination: N - national; I - international

3.2.4 Kenya (E)

INTRODUCTION

Main Non-Wood Forest Products

Important non-wood forest products (NWFP) at the national level are fodder plants (e.g. Combretum spp., Acacia spp.), medicinal plants (e.g. Walburgia salutaris) and colourants (Bixa orellana).

Other vegetal NWFP are exudates (e.g. Boswellia spp., Pinus spp., Acacia senegal), tannins (Acacia mearnsii), essential oils (e.g. Juniperus procera), edible seeds and nuts (e.g. Cordeauxia edulis) and others foodstuffs (vegetables, beverages).

Faunal NWFP are bushmeat, honey and beeswax.

General Information

In Kenya, like in other countries, "the majority of forest activities are undertaken to meet basic household subsistence needs" of low-income groups (Githitho, 1994). Most NWFP are derived from natural western, montane, coastal and mangrove forests.

More than 2.9 million inhabitants are still living adjacent to forests. Especially the 4 000 genuine forest dwellers (particularly in the western Kenyan rainforests) still depend heavily on NWFP. The importance of NWFP to these (forest adjacent) communities is often underestimated. In the Mt. Kenya region, about ten percent of the population collect NWFP. Assessments of local utilization of NWFP in various forests (e.g. Mau, Arabuko Sokode, Kakamega) could confirm the special significance of hunting, grazing and beekeeping at the household level (World Bank, 1988).

National markets for NWFP have reached various stages of development and vary across the country. Regarding international trade in NWFP, Kenya is a main supplier of Chrysantenum sp. (medicinal plant) and Bixa orellana (colourant), both non-indigenous and cultivated plant species. Bixa orellana can be found in agroforestry schemes.

PLANTS AND PLANT PRODUCTS

Food

In Kenya, vegetables play an important role in food security for the rural population. In the Machakos district, for example, in the rainy season wild leaves contribute to the human diet with 35 percent by weight.

Fruits are also consumed seasonally, especially by children. The fruits of Ximenia caffra and Sclerocarya birrea are popular and can nowadays be found on farms to a larger extent. In the Kathama area, wild fruits have long been valued as buffer food resources in periods of famine and food shortage. In the semi-arid Pokot region in northern Kenya, Balanites aegyptiaca is highly valued because it produces leaves during the dry season even in drought years (Falconer, 1990). Wild berries (e.g. gooseberries, raspberries) are not only consumed on a subsistence level, but are as well commonly offered for sale and provide some self-employment for the young people.

Most traditional beverages such as beers and wines are brewed from fruits of wild or semi-cultivated plants like Kigelia abyssinica (sausage tree). Wild fruits are also used for other non-alcoholic health beverages and drinks such as stews and soups.

Wild tubers and roots are locally used as food or for the preparation of health beverages due to their high starch or sugar content (Kahuki and Muniu, 1998).

Medicines

Medicinal plants play an important role for the national health care. Studies in Nairobi have shown that traditional medicine is widely practised in urban centres (Cunningham, 1997). For this reason Kenya is viewed as one priority region for cooperative action among health care professionals. Two medicinal plants which are traded on the world market and exploited from natural stands are Prunus africana and Walburgia salutaris. For both species, over-exploitation of the natural resources is suspected. Of total world trade of Prunus africana bark, some 200 t are extracted from the montane forests located in western Kenya (e.g. Mau, Kakamega, Aberdares) (Kahuki and Muniu, 1998; Cunningham et al., 1997).

Data on the export value of medicinal plants are missing. Import data from Germany, which constitute the most important European market, should give a rough estimate for Walburgia salutaris (78.8 t of extract and/or bark worth DM295 000 in 1992) and Aloe sp. (5 t of extract for an estimated value of DM12 000 DM in 1993) (Lange, 1997). As already mentioned, Kenya is an important supplier of Chrysantenum sp. to the world market.

Perfumes and cosmetics

Juniperus procera used to be a major source of essential oils exploited in the drier highlands of Kenya. Intensive exploitation of the natural stands for oil (and timber) has led to over-exploitation of the population (FAO, 1995b). Presently, Juniperus procera is no longer exploited for the production of essential oils.

Tannins

In Kenya tannins are extracted from the bark of Acacia mearnsii (black wattle) since the beginning of the twentieth century. Annual bark consumption is about 27 000 t/a with a yield of 9 700 t/a of tannins. Exports of tannins amount to 7 800 t/a. Exploitation currently takes place in Eldoret, where one company has established a 8 300 ha wattle plantation. Although Kenya has approximately 62 800 ha of mangroves, this potential has neither been explored nor exploited (Kahuki and Muniu, 1998).

Utensils, handicrafts and construction materials

The bark of Podocarpus species, cedar (Juniperus procera) and exotic cypress is peeled off from the trees for use in traditional thatching, wall panelling and for the construction of beehives or other receptacles. As noted in parts of the May forests of the Rift Valley, this bark extraction method has caused great damage, since ring-debarking peeling kills the entire tree. Other barks used for the production of baskets include Dombeya goetzenii (mukeo), Adansonia digitata (baobab), as well as coconuts and some other palms (Kahuki and Muniu, 1998).

Bamboo stems are used for building, fencing homesteads, tea-picking baskets, as toothpicks and in furniture-making. Although there are currently extensive bamboo forests with potential for supporting bamboo-based industries, their sustainable management has not been well developed. For fear of over-exploitation the Government has imposed restrictions to their utilization (Kahuki and Muniu, 1998).

Exudates

Production of crude resins from Pinus spp. begun in 1986 in the Machakos region (P. elliottii) and spread to the southern coastal region (P. caribaea) and to the Nakuru region (P. radiata). The first two pine species cover an area of about 1 240 ha and represent two percent and 0.2 percent, respectively, of the total pine plantations area in the country (Kahuki and Muniu, 1998). Total resin production is about 1 000 t/a with an upward trend. Resins are basically utilized by the local paper mills (Coppen and Hone, 1995).

Gum arabic is mainly obtained from Acacia senegal, which grows in the arid and semi-arid lands of northern and north-eastern Kenya. Traditionally, gum arabic was collected by the pastoral communities of the areas and traded across the border to Somalia. Commercial exploitation began in 1990 with a production of about 500 t/a (Kahuki and Muniu, 1998).

Other exudates are extracted from Commiphora spp. (myrrh, opopanax) and are estimated to be exported (unofficially) to Somalia (FAO, 1995b).

Animals and animal products

There is a wide variety of wildlife products used for subsistence and commercial purposes in Kenya. Among these are honey and beeswax, bushmeat (small animals, birds), insects, or feathers claws and skins of birds used as ornamentals and ritual objects (Kahuki and Muniu, 1998).

Honey and beeswax

The beekeeping industry is greatly dependent on forests for the production of nectar. Honey finds many uses in traditional and modern lifestyles, in food, drinks, medicines and in trade. It is used by many communities in the majority of traditional ceremonies (Kahuki and Muniu, 1998).

Bushmeat

Bushmeat is also sold in butcheries as a luxury item. The value of bushmeat is twice that of beef and can be enhanced two or three times by processing it into such luxury products as smoked, dried or sausage products (Byrne et al., 1996). However, bushmeat markets are not common, since hunting is strictly controlled in Kenya. In 1989, approximately 45 t of bushmeat were produced, while the Kenya Wildlife Service estimates that by 1995 the demand for bushmeat reached 500 t/a (FAO, 1997b).

REFERENCES

Byrne, P.V., Staubo, C. & Grootenhuis, J.G. 1996. The economics of living with wildlife in Kenya. In J. Bojoe, ed. The economics of wildlife. Case studies from Ghana, Kenya, Namibia and Zimbabwe.

Chikamai, B. 1997. Production, markets and quality control of gum arabic in Africa: Findings and recommendations from an FAO Project. In J.O. Mugah, B.N. Chikamai & E. Casadei, eds. Conservation, management and utilization of plant gums, resins and essential oils. Proceedings of a regional conference for Africa held in Nairobi, Kenya, 6-10 October 1997.

Coppen, J.J.W. & Hone, G.A. 1995. Gum naval stores: turpentine and rosin from pine resin. FAO Non-Wood Forest Products Series No. 2. Rome, National Resource Institute and FAO.

Coppen, J.J.W. 1995. Prospects for new gum naval stores production in Sub-Sahelian Africa: An assessment of the pine resources in Malawi, Zambia, Tanzania and Uganda and their potential for the production of turpine and rosin. Chatham, Natural Resource Institute.

Coppen, J.J.W., Green, C.L., Gordon, A. & Hone, G.A. 1995. Markets and the public/private sector interface: their importance in the successful development of NWFP. In FAO, ed. Report of the international expert consultation on NWFP. FAO Non-Wood Forest Products Series No. 3. Rome

Cunningham, A.B. 1997. An Africa-wide overview of medicinal plant harvesting, conservation and health care. In Global Initiative for Traditional Systems of Health & FAO, eds. Medicinal plants for forest conservation and health care. FAO Non-Wood Forest Products Series No. 11. Rome

Cunningham, M., Cunningham, A.B. & Schippmann, U. 1997. Trade in Prunus africana and the implementation of CITES. Bonn, German Federal Agency for Nature Conservation.

Falconer, J. 1990. "Hungry season" food from the forest. Unasylva, 41(160): 14-19.

FAO. 1993. International trade of non-wood forest products: An overview, by M. Iqbal. Working Paper FO:Misc/93/11. Rome.

FAO. 1995a. Edible nuts, by G.E. Wickens. FAO Non-Wood Forest Products Series No. 5. Rome.

FAO. 1995b. Flavours and fragrances of plant origin, by J.J.W. Coppen. FAO Non-Wood Forest Products Series No. 1. Rome.

FAO. 1995c. Gums, resins and latexes of plant origin, by J.J.W. Coppen. FAO Non-Wood Forest Products Series No. 6. Rome.

FAO. 1995d. Natural colourants and dyestuffs by C.L. Green. FAO Non-Wood Forest Products Series No. 4. Rome.

FAO. 1997a. Country compass: Kenya. Non-wood news No. 4. Rome.

FAO. 1997b. Wildlife and food security in Africa, by Y. Ntiamoa-Baidu. FAO Conservation Guide No. 33. Rome.

Fliervoet, E. 1982. An inventary of trees and shrubs in the nothern division of Machacos District, Kenya. Wageningen, Nairobi

Githito, A. 1994. High canopy forest management in Kenya. Final draft.

Haeruman, H. 1995. Environmental dimensions of NWFP. In FAO. ed. Report of the International Expert Consultation of NWFP. FAO Non-Wood Forest Products Series No. 3. Rome.

Hussain, M. Z. undated. Mangrove conservation and management. Kenya. FAO Field Document FO:TCP/KEN/0051(A)

Kahuki, C.D & Muniu, J.M.W. 1998. Non-wood forest products in Kenya. In EC/FAO/UNEP. Proceedings of sub-regional workshop on forestry statistics - IGAD region. Rome

Kifkon. 1994. Key indigenous forest conservation programme. Phase I report. Nairobi

Lange, D. 1997. Untersuchungen zum Heilpflanzenmarkt in Deutschland. Bonn, Bundesamt für Naturschutz.

Ngéthe, R., Kariuki, A. & Opondo, C. 1997. Some experience on adaptive research input on natural resource use: The case of gums and resins in Mukogodo Rangelands, Laikipia District, Kenya. In J.O. Mugah, B.N. Chikamai & E. Casadei, eds. Conservation, management and utilization of plant gums, resins and essential oils. Proceedings of a regional conference for Africa held in Nairobi, Kenya, 6-10 October 1997

Tiensongrusmee, B. 1991. Mangrove conservation and management. Washington, DC. World Bank.

World Bank. 1988. Kenya forestry subsector review. Volume I, Main report. Report No. 6651-KE. Washington.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This report has been realized thanks to the funding of the EC-FAO Partnership Programme "Data Collection and Analysis for Sustainable Forest Management in ACP Countries". The content is based on available information at FAO Headquarters in Rome, as well as on information provided by Mr C.D. Kahuki and J.M.W. Muniu, Forestry Department, Nairobi, Kenya.

Additional information on NWFP in Kenya would be appreciated and duly acknowledged.

ANNEX 1: FOREST SERVICES

Forest services include tourism and recreation, as well as ritual and ceremonial values of Kenyan forests.

Tourism is the second highest foreign exchange earner generating an annual income of about US$ 600 million (FAO, 1997b). The greatest portion of gross earnings from tourism is based on wildlife activities. Only few visitors come to view forests but are attracted by the species that can be found in them. Main exceptions are the Mt. Kenya forests and the Aberdares, where large-scale tourism accommodations were established (Byrne et al., 1996; Haeruman, 1995).

QUANTITATIVE DATA ON NWFP OF KENYA

Importance: 1- high importance on the national level; 2 - high importance on the local/regional level; 3 - low importance
Part used: an - entire animal; ba - bark; bw - beeswax; le - leaves; nu - nuts; fi - fibres; fl - flowers; fr - fruits; gu - gums; ho - honey;
la - latex; oi - oil; pl - entire plant; re - resins; ro - roots; sa - sap; se - seeds; st - stem; ta - tannins
Habitat: F - natural forest or other wooded lands; P - plantation; O - others: trees outside forests (e.g. agroforestry, homegardens)
Source: W - wild, C - cultivated
Destination: N - national; I - international

3.2.5 Somalia (E)

INTRODUCTION

Main Non-Wood Forest Products

Exudates (myrrh, opopanax and olibanum) are supposed to be the most valuable non-wood forest products (NWFP) of Somalia, as they are the third source of export revenue after livestock and bananas.

Other important NWFP at the national level, both for subsistence and trade, are used for fodder and in medicine. At the local level, latex, tannins, edible fruits and nuts constitute significant NWFP (FAO, 1988).

Regarding animals and animal products, the utilization of crocodiles and warthogs is documented (FAO and UNDP, 1990).

PLANTS AND PLANT PRODUCTS

Fodder

Boswellia spp. is not only important for the production of resins but also as a significant source of fodder, especially in the dry season. Since legal ownership rights for natural resources are not established by law, a conflict of utilization exists between tapping and grazing of Boswellia spp.

In the central region, overgrazing is widespread and the creation of grazing reserves, as well as a system of rotational utilization for browsing, was recommended (FAO 1972 in Bowen, 1990; Lawton 1988 in Bowen, 1990).

In general, most of the woody species (e.g. Acacia tortilis, A. nilotica) constitute very good forage, since they have a much higher protein content than herbs (Giorgetti and Franci in Bowen, 1990). During most of the year, grasses are reduced to no more than unappetizing hard stalks. Thus the foliage and green fruits of bushes and even of the taller Acacia spp. (which camels can easily reach) are preferred (Giordano, 1941).

Medicines

The utilization of 151 medicinal plants is documented by Elmi (1983, in Bowen 1990). Dahir (in Bowen 1990) describes the application of 81 medicinal plants in the Lower Jubba region.

Exudates

Somalia is the world's biggest exporter of myrrh and opopanax resins (Commiphora spp.) and a major supplier of both olibanum beyo (Boswellia carteri) and olibanum maidi (Boswellia freeriana). Exports of these resins are declining due to the country's instability (EC, UNDP and FAO, 1998).

Table 1. Main sources of myrrh, opopanax and olibanum and estimated world trade, 1987

Source: FAO (1995b)

"The value of exports [of Somalian resins] is estimated at US$156 million at international prices, though official receipts in 1984 and 1985 averaged only US$28 million (Bowen,1990 quoting Coulter 1987).

In total, more than 10 000 persons participate in the collection of resins in Somalia. All species (Commiphora spp., Boswellia spp.) are grown in natural stocks, which "belong" to families living in the resin production areas. Direct exploitation by the nomads is the most common system, and a shift from share-cropping systems to rental arrangements can be observed.

Myrrh, derived from Commiphora myrrah and Commiphora spp., and opopanax (Commiphora erythraea, Commiphora spp.) are used for flavouring purposes, chewing, mouthwashes and for making beverages. Commiphora species are found in dry inland locations from the north to the extreme south where they are exploited by nomadic herdsmen as a subsidiary source of income. However, much of the material exported from Somalia is believed to be collected in Ethiopia (Bowen 1990, quoting Coulter 1987). At the end of the 1980s annual exports of Commiphora resins were estimated to amount to 1 000 t, corresponding to a value of US$ 4 million f.o.b. (Bowen 1990, quoting Coulter 1987). FAO (1995b) documents that the volume of myrrh exports showed considerable variations between 1976 and 1979.

Table 2. Exports of myrrh from Somalia

Source: Coppen 1995

Olibanum is exploited from natural stands of Boswellia spp. It is utilized as a fragrance (e.g. for religious ceremonies) and for flavouring. In Somalia, there is a distinction between two types of olibanum: Olibanum maidi, produced from Boswellia freeriani, and olibanum beyo obtained from B. carteri (syn. B. sacra).

Exploitation of olibanum takes place in north-eastern Somalia. The resins are obtained by making deliberate incisions into the bark. Olibanum is tapped about nine months a year in one (beyo) or two (maidi) periods. The yield is approximately 1-3 kg/tree/a. Tapping is a vital mainstay to the local economy in a very poor region. For many collectors it is the principal source of income (Coulter 1987 in Bowen 1990).

ANIMALS AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS

Honey is exported to Arabic countries such as Saudi Arabia, and a traffic of wildlife skins and elephant tusks may exist in the southern part of the country (EC, UNDP and FAO, 1998).

REFERENCES

Bowen, M.R. 1990. A bibliography of forestry in Somalia and Djibuti. Edition two. Natural Resources Institute for Overseas Development Administration, UK and National Range Agency, Somalia. Somali Forestry Papers No. 3

EC, UNDP & FAO. 1998. Data collection for sustainable forest management in ACP countries. Linking national and international efforts. Proceedings of sub-regional workshop on forestry statistics - IGAD region, Nakuru, Kenya, 12-16 October. Rome.

FAO & UNDP. 1990. Tropical forestry action plan. Somalia. Volume 1 - General Report

FAO. 1988. Forestry and range: A sector review, by S. Dhanani. Report No. 88/1. Rome.

FAO. 1995a. Edible nuts by G.E. Wickens. FAO Non-Wood Forest Product Series No. 5. Rome.

FAO. 1995b. Flavours and fragrances of plant origin, by J.J.W. Coppen. FAO Non-Wood Forest Products Series No.1. Rome

Giordano, G. 1941. The utilization of woodlands in Italian East Africa with regard to conservation and improvement of the region's forests. In Agricultura Coloniale 35. Translation prepared by R. Todaro and M.R. Bowen (1989)

Karani, A.A. 1983.National progress report on forestry in Somalia (1978-82)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This report has been realized thanks to the funding of the EC-FAO Partnership Programme "Data Collection and Analysis for Sustainable Forest Management in ACP Countries". The content is based on available information at FAO Headquarters in Rome, as well as on information provided by Mr M.D. Abdi, Ministry of Rural Development and Environment, Somalia, and Mr Y.M. Hussein, Mogadishu Forestry Association.

Additional information on NWFP in Somalia would be appreciated and duly acknowledged.

QUANTITATIVE DATA ON NWFP OF SOMALIA

Importance: 1- high importance on the national level; 2 - high importance on the local/regional level; 3 - low importance
Part used: an - entire animal; ba - bark; bw - beeswax; le - leaves; nu - nuts; fi - fibres; fl - flowers; fr - fruits; gu - gums; ho - honey;
la - latex; oi - oil; pl - entire plant; re - resins; ro - roots; sa - sap; se - seeds; st - stem; ta - tannins
Habitat: F - natural forest or other wooded lands; P - plantation; O - others: trees outside forests (e.g. agroforestry, homegardens)
Source: W - wild, C - cultivated
Destination: N - national; I - international

3.2.6 Sudan (E)

INTRODUCTION

Main Non-Wood Forest Products

The most known and most important Sudanese non-wood forest product (NWFP) is gum arabic, obtained mainly from Acacia senegal (gum hashab) but also from Acacia seyal (gum talha). Sudan is also one of the world's biggest exporters of olibanum resins (Boswellia sp.).

Other vegetal NWFP are fodder (e.g. Ziziphus spp., Acacia spp.); food (fruits, e.g. Hyphaene thebaica; nuts, e.g. Cordeauxia edulis; and edible oils, e.g. Vitellaria paradoxa, Balanites aegyptiaca); medicines (e.g. Tamarindus indica); dyes (e.g. henna - Lawsonia inermis, Prosopis africana); fibres (e.g. Borassus aethiopum); latex (e.g. Landolfia ovariensis); and tannins (e.g. Rizophora mucronata, Acacia nilotica).

Honey and beeswax are the only faunal NWFP on which documentation exists.

General Information

Altogether, about 150 NWFP are used in Sudan (Badi, 1993). Plant products are of major importance, especially for subsistence (e.g. food, medicines, fodder).

The most common NWFP put on the market in the northern parts of Sudan, in addition to gum arabic, are listed in Table 1. The main markets for these products are in towns, with Umdurna supposed to be the main national trading centre.

Table 1. Main NWFP put on the market in northern Sudan

Source: Sulieman and Eldoma (1994), modified.

The total national value of trade amounts to LSd380 025 068,³⁶ of which Tamarindus indica (aradeib) scores the highest trade value (LSd135 864 000) and Acacia nilotica (garad) the lowest (LSd1 464 780) (Sulieman and Eldoma, 1994).

At least six NWFP are exported: gum arabic (Acacia spp.), gum loban (Boswellia papyrifera, Commiphora sp.), as well as the fruits of aradbei (Tamarindus indica), gongleitz (Adansonia digitata), senna (Cassia senna) and henna (Lawsonia inermis). The total value of foreign trade amounts to US$6 929 587 (Sulieman and Eldoma, 1994).

Most of the above-mentioned species are exploited from natural resources. Lawsonia inermis is cultivated; Acacia senegal and Acacia seyal are exploited in natural stands as well as in plantations.

Products are collected by women and children in the neighbourhood of their villages and by men in remote areas. In general, collection is a seasonal activity. Most NWFP are exploited in small-scale production systems.

According to Suliman and Eldoma (1994), gathering of NWFP in Sudan "started to gain considerable importance" since NWFP

· are important for food supply, especially during the dry season;

· develop good market values;

· are used more frequently in many industries.

PLANTS AND PLANT PRODUCTS

Fodder

Forage is an essential and traditional use of forested areas. It is estimated that the contribution of trees and shrubs to forage intake ranges from five percent at the beginning of the dry season to 45 percent at its end (Harris, 1994). Important fodder trees which are browsed as well as looped are Acacia spp., Hyphaene thebaica, Ziziphus spp. and Balanites aegyptiaca. Since Acacia senegal and A. seyal are not only important fodder trees for the nomads, but also a source of gum arabic, conflicts of utilization exist and rules on exploitation have to be set for both communities.

Medicines

At least 60 medicinal (and aromatic) plants, which either occur naturally or are cultivated, exist in Sudan. Important medicinal plants include Acacia nilotica, Adansonia digitata, Cassia senna, Grewia spp. and Tamarindus indica. They are used in traditional medicine as well as by industry for the preparation of derivatives. Plants which are not cultivated on a commercial scale, such as Senna alexandria, are gathered at random (Eltohami, 1995).

Exudates

Gum arabic is the most valuable NWFP in Sudan; it is obtained from Acacia senegal (gum hashab) and Acacia seyal (gum talha). It is used in the food industry, as pharmaceutical as well as in technical and miscellaneous applications.

Sudan is the major producer and exporter of gum arabic supplying approximately 80 percent of the world market. Exploitation as well as trade in gum arabic is controlled by a sole exporter, the Gum Arabic Company (GAC). Gum arabic is the second largest Sudanese export crop after cotton (Taban, 1987). It represents 10-18 percent of the total value of exports from the country (FAO, 1993). In 1990 it reached 13.6 percent of total exports value, even if production declined from 50 576 t (annual average 1965-69) to 18 358 t (annual average 1990-94) (FAO, 1995). The main reasons for the decline in production were the Sahelian drought in 1973/74 and fluctuations in the supply, quality and prices of the raw material.

In 1994, Sudan produced altogether 33 227 t of gum arabic (FAO, 1995). In the collection season 1996/97, 17 759 t of gum arabic (of which 17 746 t gum hashab and 13 t gum talha) were produced (Ezeldeen and Osman, 1998).

Table 2. Annual production of gum arabic in Sudan (5-year averages), 1960-1994 (tons)

Source: FAO (1995)

Exploitation of gum arabic mainly takes place in the gum belt zone between latitude 10°N and 14°N in an area of 520 000 km². Acacia senegal and Acacia seyal grow in natural stands, as well as in planted areas. Approximately 8 500 ha of both species are planted annually (Eezeldeen and Osman, 1998). Especially Acacia senegal has been widely planted. Acacia seyal (gum talha) is exploited by natural exudation in natural stocks, whereas gum hashab is collected by tapping. Tapping begins in October/November, when the trees start to shed their leaves, and continues until February. Trees are tapped at 15-day intervals and yield 250-300 g of gum per season.

"The land tenure system and respect for local tradition generally ensures that the people who carry out the tapping also reap the rewards of collecting gum" (Nour and Osmar, 1997). The majority of gum is exploited by smallholder farmers, owning "gum orchards". Most of them tap gum themselves, others hire labour or share production with gum workers. A minority of large-holder farmers depends on hired labour and on share-cropping for production. Within the share-cropping system, which is dominant in the dry areas, about 50-75 percent of the gum goes to the owner whereas the rest belongs to the collector.

The collector sells the gum to the middlemen (village merchants) who are responsible for the cleaning, sorting and transport of gum. He finally supplies the exporter either directly or via auction markets.

Exploitation and trade of gum arabic is controlled by one sole exporter, the Gum Arabic Company (GAC).

"Theoretically every gatherer should sell the gum in the auction markets organized by the Government, where the product is sold to specialized merchants who transport the gum to their storing shed for cleaning, grading and packaging. All clean and graded gum is then sold to the gum exporting company. However, in practice the gatherers are often prevented from selling their produce at the auctions by lack of cash, transport, water and labour. Their actual marketing difficulties start even before the gum arabic is produced. As it often happens, the gatherer needs cash before the product can be harvested. For this he has to arrange an advance sale of the expected produce with the village merchant in order to get his/her essential supplies or with the water transport operator to get the water. Both the price of the essential supplies and that of the expected produce are fixed by the village merchant and the transport fee by the truck operator. Under the circumstances, the gatherer has no alternative but to accept. It has been estimated that about 30 percent of the producers do not sell their product in the auction markets due to the above reasons. The gatherers sell their gum unsorted, although the grading is quite simple, based on physical parameters of colour, shape, size and purity" (Lintu, 1995)

Sudan has recently installed equipment to produce kibbled gum and has become the first producing country to gain added value in this way. The most important importer of gum arabic is Europe (France, United Kingdom, Italy, Germany) which imported 12 200 t/a in the period 1988-1993.

Depending on the resource (Acacia senegal, A. seyal) and the grades (kibbled-dust, super-siftings) the export price varies between US$400 and US$6 000 per ton.

Table 3. Export prices of gum arabic from Sudan

Source: FAO (1995)

Sudan is (together with Ethiopia) the world's largest producer of olibanum resins (Boswellia carteri syn. B. sacra, B. freeriana). In 1987, exports from Sudan and Ethiopia amounted to about 2 000 t (FAO, 1995b). Olibanum is used as fragrance as well as for flavouring purposes.

Total production of gum loban, resins obtained from Boswellia papyrifer and Commiphora sp., was estimated to reach 1 688 t in 1993/94 (Sulieman and Eldoma, 1994).

REFERENCES

Badi, K.H. 1993. Exhaustive list of forest species bearing NWFP in the Sudan. Forest Products Consumption Survey: Topic Specific Study Report No. 1. Forests National Corporation, Ministry of Agriculture Animal Wealth and Natural Resources, FAO.

Chikamai, B. 1997. Production, markets and quality control of gum arabic in Africa: Findings and recommendations from an FAO Project. In J.O. Mugah, B.N. Chikamai & E. Casadei, eds. Conservation, management and utilization of plant gums, resins and essential oils. Proceedings of a regional conference for Africa held in Nairobi, Kenya, 6-10 October 1997.

Daoud, A.A. 1993. Export and import of forest products in the Sudan. Forest National Corporation, Ministry of Agriculture Animal Wealth, FAO.

Eltohami, M.S. 1995. Case studies on medicinal and aromatic plants in Sudan. Karthoum. Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Research Institute.

Ezeldeen, M. & Osman, A.R.. 1998. NWFP in Sudan. In EC, UNDP & FAO. Data collection for sustainable forest management in ACP countries. Linking national and international efforts. Proceedings of sub-regional workshop on forestry statistics - IGAD region, Nakuru, Kenya, 12-16 October. FAO. Rome.

FAO. 1993. International Trade in NWFP. An overview, by M. Iqbal. FAO Working Paper FO:Misc/93/11. Rome.

FAO. 1995a. Edible nuts by G.E. Wickens. FAO Non-Wood Forest Product Series No. 5. Rome.

FAO. 1995b. Gums, resins and latexes of plant origin, by J.J.W. Coppen. FAO Non-Wood Forest Products Series No. 6. Rome

FAO. 1995c. Flavours and fragrances of plant origin, by J.J.W. Coppen. FAO Non-Wood Forest Products Series No. 1. Rome.

FAO. 1995d. Natural colorants and dyestuffs. A review of production, markets and development potential, by C.L. Green. FAO Non-Wood Forest Products Series No. 4. Rome.

Harris, P.S. 1994. Consultant report on grazing management in forest areas. Forest National Corporation, FAO. Karthoum

Isola, A. 1994. Forest development in the Sudan: Apiculture. Mission Report. Forest National Corporation, FAO. Karthum

Lintu, L. 1995. Trade and marketing of NWFP. In FAO, ed. Report of the international expert consultation on NWFP, Yogyakarta, Indonesia, 17-27 January 1995. FAO Non-Wood Forest Products Series No. 3. Rome.

Ministry of Environment and Tourism & FAO. 1995. Mangrove conservation and management in the Sudan

Nour, H.O. & Osman, M.E. 1997. Management and organization of gum arabic industry in Sudan. In J.O. Mugah,.O.; B.N. Chikamai & E. Casadei, eds: Conservation, management and utilization of plant gums, resins and essential oils. Proceedings of a regional conference for Africa, 6-10 October. Nairobi

Sulieman, M. S. & Eldoma, A.M.A. 1994. Marketing of NWFP (excluding the gum arabic) in the Sudan. Forest Products Consumption Survey: Topic Specific Study Report No. 14. Forests National Corporation, Ministry of Agriculture Animal Wealth and Natural Resources, FAO.

Taban, A. L. 1987. Sudan grows trees for environment - and profit.

Tahiz, H.M.M. 1989. Sudan country report. FAO Seminar on Forestry Statistics in Africa, Blantyre, Malawi, 12-25 November 1989, FAO. Rome

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This report has been realized thanks to the funding of the EC-FAO Partnership Programme "Data Collection and Analysis for Sustainable Forest Management in ACP Countries". The content is mainly based on available information at FAO Headquarters in Rome, as well as on information provided by Mr M. Ezeldeen, Sudan National Forestry Inventory Administration, and Mr A.R. Osman, Forest National Corporation.

Additional information on NWFP in Sudan would be appreciated and duly acknowledged.

QUANTITATIVE DATA ON NWFP OF SUDAN

Importance: 1- high importance on the national level; 2 - high importance on the local/regional level; 3 - low importance
Part used: an - entire animal; ba - bark; bw - beeswax; le - leaves; nu - nuts; fi - fibres; fl - flowers; fr - fruits; gu - gums; ho - honey;
la - latex; oi - oil; pl - entire plant; re - resins; ro - roots; sa - sap; se - seeds; st - stem; ta - tannins
Habitat: F - natural forest or other wooded lands; P - plantation; O - others: trees outside forests (e.g. agroforestry, homegardens)
Source: W - wild, C - cultivated
Destination: N - national; I - international

3.2.7 Tanzania (E)

INTRODUCTION

Main Non-Wood Forest Products

The most important non-wood forest products (NWFP) are fodder (e.g. Acacia spp., Prosopis spp.), medicinal plants (e.g. Faidherbia albida, Acacia mellifera, Bridelia micrantha, Cinchona sp., Prunus africana, Jateorhiza palmata), as well as honey and beeswax.

Other NWFP exploited in Tanzania are bamboo (Arundinaria alpina), fibres (e.g. Adansonia digitata), resins (Pinus sp.), latex (Hevea brasiliensis), tannins (e.g. Acacia mearnsii), essential oils (e.g. Juniperus procera, Acacia farnesiana) and plant material for the construction of hives (e.g. Acacia sp., Brachystegia sp.). Food products include fruits (Acacia nilotica, Adansonia digitata), spices, edible oils (Adansonia digitata), colourants (e.g. Bombax rhodognaphalon), gums (e.g. Acacia senegal), and mushrooms (e.g. Amanita sp.).

Faunal NWFP include bushmeat, live animals (especially birds), insects (termites) and trophies (e.g. elephants, zebras).

General Information

NWFP are used for subsistence as well as for trade at the national and international level. The total value of NWFP trade in 1988 was estimated to exceed slightly the value of wood products (fuelwood, charcoal, building poles, forest industries) (Chihongo, 1992). Especially latex, tannins, medicinal plants, gums and animal products are NWFP commercialized on the world market. In export trade, wattle extracts (tannin) ranked first and second in terms of value in 1986 and 1987, respectively (FAO, 1989).

However, "the value of NWFPs lies not so much as indicated in the figures, but in that so many people in rural Tanzania rely on these products for their survival" (Chihongo, 1992). The Tanzanian Ministry of Lands, Natural Resources and Tourism (undated) concludes that "NWFP have generally been underestimated in relation to local economy and consumption. Forest-based small-scale enterprises should be encouraged to utilize this potential as part of the multi-purpose management of Tanzanian forest resources."

Two hundred thirty-three trees and shrubs have been identified as being used for food and medicines (178 species), fodder (160 species), and various other uses (e.g. fibres, resins, tannins, oils - 123 species) (Mbuya et al., 1994).

NWFP are in general collected from natural resources (especially the miombo forests) under an open access property rights system. Some exported NWFP such as Cinchona spp. are mainly cultivated in more intensive production systems outside the forest.

Under-exploited NWFP are wildlife based forest products, tannin, honey, beeswax and gum arabic.

PLANTS AND PLANT PRODUCTS

Food

Eighty-three species of indigenous fruit trees have been recorded in Tanzania. Most of the fruit trees occur in the miombo woodlands (Clarke, Cavendish and Coote, 1996). In Lushoto, situated in the Usambara Mountains, households consume 15 species of wild leaves (Clarke, Cavendish and Coote, 1996).

Fodder

Forest forage is an important supplementary diet for livestock and wildlife which contains essential proteins (in its pods, buds and leaves). Especially in the dry season, browsing of fodder trees remains an essential activity for the survival of the animals. In general, cattle and wildlife browse in natural stands of Prosopis spp. and Acacia spp. Only in the densely populated highland areas (e.g. Arusha, Kilimanjaro) people are cultivating fodder trees like Leucena leucocephala, Erythrina sp. or Grevillea robusta. In general, fodder trees are used at the community level, nevertheless commercialization is documented. The value of fodder trees is estimated to be TSh900 million³⁷, which corresponds to seven percent of the total value of the primary forest production (Chihongo, 1992).

Medicines

Medicinal plants are used in traditional medicine and traded on the world market. Some 80 percent of the Tanzanians rely on traditional medicine based on plants mainly derived from wild sources. The utilization of 86 medicinal (and eight aromatic plants) is documented to be used mainly for local consumption (Rulangaranga, 1989).

At least 150 medicinal plants are reported to be traded on the world market (Afro Scan, undated). Though most of these species are collected in natural forests, the most known Tanzanian medicinal plant, Cinchona spp. (C. calisaya, C. ledgeriana, C. officinalis, C. pubescens), is cultivated in association with commercial tree estates in the southern highlands. The bark is used to extract alkaloids (e.g. quinine, quinidine), which are necessary for the production of anti-malaria drugs.

Other medicinal plants traded on the world market are Prunus africana and Warburgia salutaris. Some 120 t of bark of Prunus africana are extracted every year from the natural montane forests. The value of the bark is estimated to be US$2-10 per kg. Some bark material exported from Tanzania might originate from the Republic of Congo (former Zaire) (Cunningham, 1997).

Concern has been expressed over the negative ecological effects of exploitation of certain medicinal plants. Acacia farnesiana and Xylopia aethiopica are believed to "need immediate ex situ and in situ conservation measures because of their limited distribution and their potential economic importance to the nation" (Rulangarana, 1989). A damage assessment is also recommended for Warburgia salutaris (Cunningham, 1997).

Studies in Dar es Salaam have shown that in urban centres traditional medicine is practised extensively (Cunningham, 1997). It was estimated that in 1982 about 30 000-40 000 traditional healers were working in Tanzania, compared to 600 medical doctors (Cunningham, 1993). These figures emphasize the importance of medicinal plants for primary health care. The Tanzanian Government has recognized the importance of traditional practitioners by establishing the Traditional Research Unit of Muhimbili Medical Centre.

Utensils, handicrafts and construction materials

Fibres are important NWFP used as utensils and construction material. They are considered as the "most potential but least developed" NWFP in Tanzania (Chihongo, 1992). Important tree species providing material for the construction of beehives include Acacia sp., Brachystegia sp. and Combretum sp.

Exudates

Gum arabic is tapped from wild Acacia woodlands in the Singida, Arusha, Shinyanga and Tabora regions. In 1994, about 1 000 t were harvested. In order to increase production of gum arabic, new plantations have been, and will be, established.

Latex is obtained from the rubber tree Hevea brasiliensis, cultivated mainly in Zanzibar. In 1991, about 10 543 t were exported from Tanzania, equivalent to a value of US$913 820 (Chihongo, 1992).

Pine plantations of Pinus elliottii (5 215 ha) and P. caribaea (8 090 ha) are considered as potential areas for resin production in Tanzania (Coppen, 1995).

ANIMALS AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS

Living animals

Tanzania is one of Africa's major sources of wild birds sold on the international market. Over 180 000 birds representing 116 species are exported, mainly to Europe and North America. It is not clear if these species can be considered as miombo species. However, "there is very low return to Tanzania of the true economic value, perhaps only 2-3 percent, as a result of deliberate under-pricing" (Birgham, Chihongo and Chidumayo, 1996).

Honey and beeswax

Honey and beeswax are two of the most important NWFP in Tanzania. Honey is important as a sweetener and as a source of raw material for alcoholic beverages (honey beer). In addition, it is used in traditional ceremonies (like marriages and circumcisions). Beeswax is used locally in a wide range of applications.

Honey and beeswax are collected in miombo woodlands, as well as outside the forests in agricultural land in western, central and southern Tanzania. Collection is done with traditional methods without using chemicals and, consequently, negative ecological effects are caused by the utilization of fire and the felling of trees (pers. comm. Karmann, 1999). Most of the honey is consumed locally. Nevertheless, honey and beeswax are exported and constitute an important source of foreign currency earning. In 1989 and 1991, Tanzania earned US$0.5 and 2.6 million, respectively, from exports with beeswax accounting by far for the larger share. Significant importers of Tanzanian beeswax are Germany, Japan and the United Kingdom. Honey markets are in the Middle East and in the United Arab Emirates (Birgham, Chihongo and Chidumayo, 1996).

Bushmeat

Bushmeat is an important resource at the local level.

Other Edible Animal Products

In some parts of Tanzania cropping of termite colonies of the winged reproductive termites to be sold on local markets as foodstuff is a common practice. Some insects are recorded to be exported to Uganda (Birgham, Chihongo and Chidumayo, 1996).

REFERENCES

Afro Scan International. Undated. Medicinal herbs and health food plants. Dar es Salaam.

Birgham, T., Chihongo, A. & Chidumayo, E. 1996. Trade in woodland products from the miombo region. In B. Campbell, ed. The miombo in transition: Woodlands and welfare in Africa. Bogor. CIFOR.

Chihongo, A.W. 1992. Pilot country study on NWFP for Tanzania. In Commonwealth Science Council & FAO, eds. Non-wood forest products: A regional expert consultation for English-speaking African countries, 17-22 October 1993, Arusha, Tanzania.

Clarke, J., Cavendish, W. & Coote, C. 1996. Rural households and miombo woodlands: Use, value and management. In B. Campbell, ed. The miombo in transition: Woodlands and welfare in Africa. Bogor. CIFOR.

Coppen, J.J.W. 1995. Prospects for new gum naval stores production in Sub-Sahelian Africa: An assessment of the pine resources in Malawi, Zambia, Tanzania and Uganda and their potential for the production of turpine and rosin. Chatham. Natural Resource Institute.

Cunningham, A.B. 1993. African medicinal plants. Setting priorities at the interface between conservation and primary health care. People and Plants Working Paper No. 1. Paris. Unesco.

Cunningham, A.B. 1997. An Africa-wide overview of medicinal plant harvesting, conservation and health care. In Global Initiative for Traditional Systems of Health & FAO, eds. Medicinal plants for forest conservation and health care. FAO Non-Wood Forest Products Series No. 11. Rome.

Cunningham, M., Cunningham, A.B. & Schippmann, U. 1997. Trade in Prunus africana and the implementation of CITES. Bonn German Federal Agency of Nature Conservation.

FAO. 1989. Tanzania country report, by G.S. Kowero& S.G. Mathias. FAO Seminar on Forestry Statistics in Africa, Blantyre, Malawi 12-25 Nov. 1989. Rome.

FAO. 1993. Indigenous multipurpose trees of Tanzania: Uses and economic benefits for people. FO:Misc/93/9. Rome.

FAO. 1993. International Trade in NWFP. An overview, by M. Iqbal. Working Paper FO:Misc/93/11. Rome.

Makonda, F.B.S. & Ishengoma, R.C. 1997. Indigenous knowledge and utilization potentials of selected gum, resin and oil plant species of Tanzania. In J.O. Mugah, B.N. Chikamai & E. Casadei, eds. Conservation, management and utilization of plant gums, resins and essential oils. Proceedings of a regional conference for Africa, 6-10 October. Nairobi.

Mbuya, L.P., Msanga, H.P., Ruffo, C.K., Birnie, A. & Tengnas, B. 1994. Useful trees and shrubs for Tanzania. Technical Handbook No. 6. Nairobi. Regional Soil Conservation Unit/SIDA.

Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Natural Resources. 1997. Zanzibar long-term forestry plan. Draft for public comment. Zanzibar.

Ministry of Lands, Natural Resources and Tourism. Undated. Tanzania forestry action plan 1990/91 - 2007/08.

Rulangaranga, Z.K. 1989. Some important indigenous medicinal and aromatic plants in the wild flora of Tanzania mainland. Ministry of Lands, Natural Resources and Tourism, Forest and Beekeeping Division. Tropical Forestry Action Plan. Working Paper No. 24. Dar es Salaam.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This report has been realized thanks to the funding of the EC-FAO Partnership Programme "Data Collection and Analysis for Sustainable Forest Management in ACP Countries". The content is based on available information at FAO Headquarters in Rome. Further information was provided by Mrs M. Karmann (University of Freiburg, Germany).

Additional information on NWFP in Tanzania would be appreciated and duly acknowledged.

ANNEX 1. FOREST SERVICES

Tourism (game hunting, viewing, photography) is the most important forest service. It is often related with other wildlife based activities such as bushmeat consumption, as well as trade in animal trophies and live animals.

Tourism might be the biggest revenue earner in the forestry sector based on wildlife management and hunting (e.g. in the Serengeti). The value of these activities was estimated at US$ 50 million in 1989.

Forests are also used for cultural purposes. In the Babati District for example, local communities have established traditional forest reserves, used for male circumcision ceremonies, as meeting place for male elders, burial grounds, natural springs, private reserves, rainmaking ceremonies, place for teaching young women, etc. Cutting of trees is strictly forbidden and limited access to other resources is allowed, subject to harvesting rules (Clarke, Cavendish and Coote, 1996)

QUANTITATIVE DATA ON NWFP OF TANZANIA

Importance: 1- high importance on the national level; 2 - high importance on the local/regional level; 3 - low importance
Part used: an - entire animal; ba - bark; bw - beeswax; le - leaves; nu - nuts; fi - fibres; fl - flowers; fr - fruits; gu - gums; ho - honey;
la - latex; oi - oil; pl - entire plant; re - resins; ro - roots; sa - sap; se - seeds; st - stem; ta - tannins
Habitat: F - natural forest or other wooded lands; P - plantation; O - others: trees outside forests (e.g. agroforestry, homegardens)
Source: W - wild, C - cultivated
Destination: N - national; I - international

3.2.8 Uganda (E)

INTRODUCTION

Main Non-Wood Forest Products

Animal based non-wood forest products (NWFP) such as honey and bushmeat seem to be the most significant ones in forest exploitation in Uganda.

Other NWFP include bamboo (Arundinaria alpina), rattan, fibres (e.g. Raphia farinifera, Cyperus papyrus, Loesenerilla apocynoides), medicinal plants, gums (e.g. Acacia senegal), resins (Pinus caribaea) and edible oils (e.g. palm oil, sheabutter).

General Information

NWFP are generally obtained from wild resources in and outside the forest. Plantations of important products do not exist.

Most NWFP are used on a national scale. International trade in NWFP is only documented for resins, trophies and tourism.

A case study concerning the utilization of NWFP around the Bwindi Impenetrable National Park was conducted by Cunningham (1996). The exploitation of edible wild plant resources, beekeeping and honey collection, medicinal plants, basketry and bamboo has been documented in detail.

Cunningham (1996) identifies key species (15 edible plants, 11 species used for construction of beehives, nine medicinal plants commercially collected for sale, and 19 plants used for basketry) and formulates recommendations for the sustainable utilization of NWFP around the Bwindi National Park.

PLANTS AND PLANT PRODUCTS

Food

Naluswa (1993) lists 16 vegetables, 17 edible fruits, 7 edible mushrooms and five edible grasses that are used in Uganda.

Trade in NWFP has increased and one example is the sale and export of sheabutter obtained from Vitellaria paradoxa. Vitellaria paradoxa is an important multi-purpose tree in northern Uganda. Its nuts are eaten and used for production of food oil (sheabutter). Since nuts are collected from wild sources in the "hungry season", they contribute significantly to the daily nutrient supply. Besides, they represent an interesting source of income for women, who sell sheabutter on the local markets.

Export of sheabutter was started in 1996 by the Shea Project. At the moment, approximately 50 kg/a of sheabutter are exported to the United States. Since V. paradoxa seems to be an "under-utilized natural resource" in Uganda, whose yield is higher than that of its West African subspecies, exports are expected to increase. Up to now, no plantations of V. paradoxa have been established due to its slow development (15-20 years before fruiting) (Covol Uganda,1997).

Medicines

At least 300 plant species are used in traditional medicine (Naluswa, 1993). Studies on medicinal plants in Kampala have shown that in urban centres traditional medicine is practised extensively (Cunningham, 1997).

Naluswa (1993) describes the "low level of commercial trade in traditional medicines". No information is available on international trade in medicinal plants. Only exploitation and exports of Prunus africana in 1992 are documented (Cunningham et al., 1997).

Utensils, handicrafts and construction materials

Considerable exploitation of bamboo was documented in the montane forests of Rwenzori, Mount Elgon, Mgahinga, Echuya and Bwindi (Howard, 1991).

ANIMALS AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS

Bushmeat

Bushmeat (e.g. buffalo, giant forest hog, bushbuck) seems to be the major forest use since the precolonial era. Hunting of bushmeat may take place in special game reserves (9 282 km²) and controlled hunting areas (35 145 km²) (Ministry of Natural Resources, 1994). However, it is actually practised also outside these areas. Chimpanzees and mountain gorillas are reported to be hunted by certain ethnic groups (Batwa, Baamba, Bakonjo, Bagisu) in Semliki, Rwenzori and Mount Elgon (Howard, 1991).

REFERENCES

Andrua H.J. 1989. Uganda country report. FAO Seminar on Forestry Statistics in Africa, Blantyre, Malawi 12-25 Nov. 1989. Rome.

Commonwealth Secretariat. 1994. Sustainable management of tropical rain forest in Uganda. London

Coppen, J.J.W. 1995. Prospects for new gum naval stores production in sub-sahelian Africa: An assessment of the pine resources in Malawi, Zambia, Tanzania and Uganda and their potential for the production of turpine and rosin. Natural Resource Institute.

Covol Uganda. 1997. The Shea project for local conservation and development. (The Shea Project): Expansion Phase I, October 1997 - September 2001. Kampala, Lira.

Cunningham, A.B. 1996. People, park and plant use. Recommendations for multiple-use zones and development alternatives around Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda. People and Plants Working Paper 4. Paris. Unesco.

Cunningham, A.B. 1997. An Africa-wide overview of medicinal plant harvesting, conservation and health care. In Global Initiative for Traditional Systems of Health & FAO, eds. Medicinal plants for forest conservation and health care. FAO Non-Wood Forest Products Series No. 11. Rome.

Cunningham, M., Cunningham, A.B. & Schippmann, U. 1997. Trade in Prunus africana and the implementation of CITES. Bonn German Federal Agency of Nature Conservation.

FAO. 1993. International Trade in NWFP. An overview, by M. Iqbal. FAO Working Paper FO:Misc/93/11. Rome.

Howard, P.C. 1991. Nature conservation in Uganda's tropical forest reserves. Gland. IUCN.

Ministry of Natural Resources. 1994. The draft national environment action plan for Uganda. Kampala

Naluswa, J.T. 1993. A report on a pilot country study of non-wood forest products in Uganda. In Commonwealth Science Council & FAO, eds. Non-wood forest products: A regional expert consultation for English-speaking African countries, 17-22 October 1993, Arusha, Tanzania.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This report has been realized thanks to the funding of the EC-FAO Partnership Programme "Data Collection and Analysis for Sustainable Forest Management in ACP Countries". The content is based on available information at FAO Headquarters in Rome.

Additional information on NWFP in Uganda would be appreciated and duly acknowledged.

ANNEX 1. FOREST SERVICES

Tourism (birdwatching, mountain gorillas) is the most important forest service.

Wildlife based ecotourism is being recognized as a major potential source of foreign exchange earning (Commonwealth Secretariat, 1994). Especially national parks (10 parks covering 11 000 km²) are important habitats for nature-oriented tourism (Ministry of Natural Resources, 1994). Uganda is particularly known for its mountain gorillas and birds. With its more than 1 000 species it is the richest African region in birds and, therefore, among the most interesting ones for birdwatching.

QUANTITATIVE DATA ON NWFP OF UGANDA

Importance: 1- high importance on the national level; 2 - high importance on the local/regional level; 3 - low importance
Part used: an - entire animal; ba - bark; bw - beeswax; le - leaves; nu - nuts; fi - fibres; fl - flowers; fr - fruits; gu - gums; ho - honey;
la - latex; oi - oil; pl - entire plant; re - resins; ro - roots; sa - sap; se - seeds; st - stem; ta - tannins
Habitat: F - natural forest or other wooded lands; P - plantation; O - others: trees outside forests (e.g. agroforestry, homegardens)
Source: W - wild, C - cultivated
Destination: N - national; I - international

35 Br10 = US$1.2 (rate of exchange on 18/11/1999).
36 LSd1 000 correspond to US$3.91 (rate of exchange on 03/12/1999).
37 TSh1 000 correspond to US$1.3 (rate of exchange on 3/12/1999).
38 USh10 000 correspond to US$9.5 (rate of exchange on 01/07/1997).