by
Dr. W.Q-B. West
FAO Regional Fisheries Officer for Africa
FAO Regional Office for Africa
P.O. Box 1628, Accra, Ghana
The climatic and hydrographic conditions that led to the drought in the Sahel as well as the alarming economic disaster and human suffering that resulted therefrom have received so much world publicity in recent past that it is unnecessary to duplicate them in this paper. However, it is worthwhile to mention the magnificent role that was played and is still being played by the international community in marshalling effective aid programmes to reduce the suffering of the people in the drought-stricken zone. The countries most adversely affected by the Sahelian drought include Chad, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Senegal and Upper Volta. Besides, the northern part of Nigeria and the Gambia as well as Central African Republic, Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia and Sudan have also been reported to be seriously affected.
The magnitude of the catastrophe differs from place to place, but in general it has decimated both human and livestock populations in the affected areas and caused irreparable crop failure in many places. The human misery is beyond description, and but for the urgent response and compassion shown by the international community, the economies of the countries affected would have been crippled beyond repair. In a natural disaster of this size, as should be rightly expected, the most urgent priority is to save human lives and attempt to restore normal livelihood. Naturally, therefore, when the disaster became widely known, the immediate preoccupation of the international community and donor organizations as well as of the governments of the countries affected was to attempt to mitigate the suffering of the human population. Along with this, of course, since the economies of these countries are dominated by agriculture and livestock production, the second priority of action was saving livestock and trying to revive farming by seed supply. Thus the emergency measures to minimize losses in terms of human lives as well as valuable cattle needed to regenerate the herds were immediately embarked upon by several donor organizations and the UN system. These measures were undertaken following urgent reviews of the situation by various groups. These reviews were mainly to explore all possible ways and means of effecting the appropriate emergency measures, and there was a great display of international solidarity and compassion. Several aid giving agencies such as CIDA, EEC, FED, FAC, USAID, etc. responded quickly to the situation, and in order to liaise and coordinate the activities of the various donor agencies so as to marshall an effective force in the relief operations, certain bodies were formed, such as the UN Special Sahelian Office in New York, the FAO Office for Sahelian Relief Operations (OSRO) in Rome and the Permanent Interstate Committee for Drought Control in the Sahel (CILSS) in Ouagadougou.
While all these activities were taking place and information on the effects of the drought on agriculture, forestry, animal production, etc. was being gathered, hardly any attention was paid to fisheries since the effects on fisheries were not readily visible. Moreover, at the beginning of the drought while livestock production was declining, fish production was observed to be on the increase. Obviously therefore, fisheries was not thought to have been affected at the onset, and was therefore ignored. This neglect is evidenced by the fact that only four out of the total of 400 projects compiled in early 1974 by the Permanent Interstate Committee (CILSS) for drought relief apply exclusively to fisheries. Consequently to-date there is very little information available on the effects of the drought on Sahelian fisheries. In order to ensure that this lack of information did not in the long-run lead to ultimate neglect of the fisheries problems in the Sahel, I was requested by FAO to visit the region and review and assess the fisheries situation and how it has been affected by the drought so as to make an up-to-date appraisal of the problems presently facing the fishing industry.
I spent six weeks (March–April 1974) in the drought-stricken zone, visited a total of about 25 towns, villages, fishing communities and camps, covering several thousands of kilometres by air and road, and interviewed several groups of fishermen as well as local and government officials. It is regretted that it was not possible to visit all the countries in the Sahel affected by the drought within the time available. The account of the effects given below is therefore based primarily on observations made and information obtained in Chad, Mali, Niger and Senegal.
It is hoped that this paper will not only serve an historic value, but will help to develop a better awareness of the problems currently facing the fishing industry in the Sahel. Furthermore, it is expected that the information contained in it will also help to stimulate further discussion especially among donor organizations on Sahelian fisheries development problems and rehabilitation possibilities which will eventually lead to plans for mid- and long-term assistance programmes to improve the fishery situation in the Sahel.
The inland fisheries most adversely affected by the drought in the Sahel include those of the Niger River Basin and its tributaries, the Senegal River and its tributaries and Lake Chad and the associated Logone/Chari river system. These water systems provide not only a source of livelihood to the communities inhabiting these areas, but also a source of cheap and readily acceptable protein to neighbouring communities. In normal times, these water systems yield about 300 000 tons of fish annually. Hence in order to illustrate the situation more fully, the effects on the fisheries of these water systems will be referred to specifically.
Of the six countries most severely affected by the drought, only Senegal and Mauritania have sea fisheries. Mauritania was not visited but from evidence obtained in Senegal, it is generally believed that the drought has indirectly produced positive effects on marine fisheries. Because of the shortage of meat, livestock having been badly affected by the drought, there has been an increase in the demand for fish. Consequently, the recent accelerated increases in marine fish production in Senegal can be partly attributed to meet this increased demand for fish caused by the general shortage of meat in the country. According to available statistics, the total fish landings of the marine fisheries sector in Senegal last year amounted to nearly 304 000 tons, almost double the total landings in 1970.
Unlike marine fisheries, the inland fisheries of the Sahel countries have been adversely affected by the drought. For simplicity and ease of reference, the effects are considered under separate headings as shown below.
Since the drought started six years ago, one major phenomenon which is vividly and easily observed is that the main rivers and lakes in the area have been progressively dwindling in water volume and surface area mainly owing to excessive evaporation, while some of the smaller ones have been either already completely dry or are fast drying up. The water levels in River Senegal and River Niger, for example, are so low in some parts that navigation, except for small boats and pirogues, is virtually impossible especially during the dry season. For instance, the passenger boat M/S GENERAL SOUMARE which used to ply the River Niger between Mopti and Goa is now stationary at Mopti most of the year.
The minimum levels of River Niger usually during April–June are reported to have reduced by as much as two-thirds or even more in some places since the drought started. In some places in the Republic of Niger the water level of this river has decreased from four metres before the drought to one metre in April 1974, that is a 75 percent decrease. Consequently, the river flow has been so drastically reduced that the minimum recorded flow of the River Niger at Niamey during 1973 was only approximately 3 m3 per second according to government sources. River Komadougou which used to support a sizeable subsistence fishing in Niger is reported to be similarly affected as River Niger, while some of the tributaries of these two main rivers in the country as well as some small lakes are said to become completely dry during the dry season nowadays. Moreover, seasonal swamps which used to support some subsistence fishing in the country during rainy season no longer exist these days, government sources confirmed.
In Mali, the River Niger and its main affluent, the River Bani, are at their lowest known levels since the start of the century. By June 1973, the minimum levels of both rivers at Mopti have decreased by 85 percent and 77 percent respectively since the beginning of the drought (Table I). Besides, many of the minor tributaries of the Niger River and majority of the small lakes (les mares) are now completely dry (spring 1974). Lake Débo which used to be one of the important all-year-round fishing spots in Mali, now completely dries up during the dry season.
In Senegal, apart from River Senegal, other water systems have also been badly affected by the drought. Guiers Lake, one of the largest lakes in the country, was reported to be so low at one time that some large aquatic animals such as manatees (Trichechus manatus) started dying because of insufficient water, and water had to be pumped from River Senegal through the connecting channel, R. Towey, into the lake to increase the water level. This lake supplies Dakar with drinking water.
In April 1974, the water levels in River Ganguel and River Doue, two of the main tributaries of River Senegal, were estimated to have been halved already. Besides, Lake Vendou Edy which used to cover a surface area of about 600 ha before the drought has been progressively shrinking in size, and at the time of my visit in April 1974, the area covered by the lake was estimated at about 200 ha only, that is, a two-thirds reduction of its original size. Furthermore, the little channel, River Dialol, which links the lake to its main source of water supply, River Doue, a tributary of River Senegal, was dried up in certain sections. According to government sources in Senegal there are several other water systems in the country which were not visited but which are also severely affected by the drought.
Similarly, the water systems in the Chad Basin area are also adversely affected. Lake Chad and the Chari/Logone river system, for instance, are reported to have fallen to their lowest known levels since 1904–1905. The level of Lake Chad is reported to be decreasing at an average rate of about 20 cm per month. From January 1972 to May 1973, the surface area of this lake diminished by nearly 40 percent from 19 500 km2 to 13 500 km2 and some sources report that the lake now occupies only one-third of its original size. Consequently, in some parts, the lake has receded by more than 25 km, and some islands can now be reached by land. It is reported that the water has receded almost entirely from Nigerian as well as Cameroonian territories. The fishing village of Bol, once a lakeside fishing settlement, now looks out on a vast waste land of parched scrubgrass stretching some 30 km to the water. In fact, Lake Chad no longer exists as a single large entity, but mainly as two separate pools of water lying largely in Chad and Niger (Figures 1 and 2). In fact, the lake's physical characteristics are changing so rapidly that maps used until January 1973 became obsolete by August of the same year.
The effect of the drought en the Chari and Logone Rivers is even said to be worse. As shown in Figures 3 and 4, between the hydrologic year 1971/72 and 1972/73, the volume of the Chari River at N'djamena reduced by over 40 percent from 31.2 × 109m3 to 17.5 × 109m3, while the maximum rate of flow reduced by nearly 60 percent from 3 410 m3/second to 1 435 m3/second. During the same period, the level of this river at N'djamena reduced by 48 percent from 7.5 m to 4.35 m.
As in other areas, some smaller rivers and lakes in the Chad Basin area are reported to have completely dried up already or are fast drying up. Examples include Lake Fitri (420 km2) in the Batha district which used to supply N'djamena with fresh fish, Lake Iro (200 km2) and Lakes Léré and Fianga of the Toubouri Depression in Chad, River Serbeouel and River El Beid both in Northern Cameroon. River El Beid which is now reported to be completely dry connects Lake Chad to the large North Cameroonian flood plains (Grand Yaéré), a main spawning and feeding ground for a variety of fish species.
One of the major effects of the drought is the complete cessation of flood in some areas and insufficient flood in others. As a result, the main spawning and feeding grounds of many fish species, the flood plains, have been greatly reduced in some places and in others have disappeared altogether. Besides, the nutrient level in the rivers and lakes has also been considerably decreased. Thus, both the reproduction and growth rate of a number of fish species in the area have been adversely affected.
In Lake Chad, it is reported that certain species of fish, Synodontis batensoda, for example, have not shown any increase in size since July 1972, according to observations by ORSTOM workers in Chad. This could probably be because of the low nutrient level in the lake owing to lack of flood. On the other hand, it could be due to a change in the dynamic equilibrium of the lake in respect to ichthyofauna, resulting in a greater competition for the food which is already in short supply in the lake. In fact, evidence from catch composition shows that some economically important species, such as Alestes spp. and Lates niloticus, which used to dominate Lake Chad fishery are now being displaced by other less important species like Tilapia, Polypterus and Clarias. This is because the latter group of fish is favoured by the dense scrubgrass overgrowth and therefore continues to spawn in the lake, while the former normally breed in the inundated flood plains of the Chari and Logone rivers, now drastically reduced.
As earlier mentioned, in Guiers Lake in Senegal, because of insufficient water in the lake, certain large aquatic animals such as manatee (Trichechus manatus) started dying in the 1972/73 season, before the water level was increased by pumping from River Senegal.
The above effects on the water systems and on the fish fauna have sparked off a chain reaction in Sahelian fisheries. In some places such as the Lake Chad basin, the immediate effect was a sudden and rapid increase in fish production because of the concentration of the fish population owing to the very rapid shrinkage of the water bodies which increased their vulnerability. As a result of this sudden boom, the fishing effort increased. The duration of this bonanza varied from place to place, but by 1972, in all the places visited it seemed the maximum had been reached. In Lake Chad, for example the estimated total production increased from 46 000 to 50 000 tons in 1969 to over 130 000 tons in 1972 (Table II), before a declining tendency both in total production and in catch per unit effort became noticeable in 1973. Though statistics are not available, government sources in Chad strongly believe that the production could have been halved in 1973, and available evidence also indicates that 1974 production is likely to be even worse than 1973.
In Senegal, according to available statistics (Table III), the total production for River Senegal and Guiers Lake used to average about 30 000 tons per year before the drought. But by 1972, the production had decreased by 60 percent to 12 000 tons and in 1973, only 6 400 tons of fish were taken from these waters, and from all indications the prospects for 1974 appear to be gloomier still. While in Senegal I observed the catches of some pirogue fishermen and in no case did the day's catch (six hours' fishing) exceed 8 kg per group of seven to ten fishermen. This situation is more pathetic when one considers the fact that these fisher-men together may have a total of over 50 dependents.
In the village of Ganguel on River Ganguel, a tributary of River Senegal, one fisherman put it dramatically when he said that his present monthly catch was less than his daily catch before the drought. Another fisherman maintained that his catch has been reduced by over 90 percent since the drought began. Fishermen interviewed in the fishing settlements and camps around Sindé-Gué and Korientzé in Mali reported a 90–95 percent reduction in their fish landings since the drought commenced. According to them, they used to catch an average of 200 kg of fish per person per night before the drought, but now they catch only about 10 to 20 kg with luck. These statements may be exaggerations, but they portray the gravity of the crisis.
In Niger, statistics were not available but government sources asserted that no fish are available in River Niger, 70 to 100 km from Niamey on both sides, an area which used to be a centre of intense fishing before the drought. Beyond this limit, only small immature fish are available, the sources maintained. According to ‘Nigerien’ fishermen operating on the River Niger, their monthly catch now averages less than 50 kg.
In Mali, statistics for total fish production are difficult to obtain, but up-to-date records of the sale of dried and smoked fish at Mopti, the main marketing centre for these products, are kept and these have been utilized in this paper. According to these records (Table IV) the total weight of processed (dried and smoked) fish at Mopti decreased by over 50 percent between 1968 and 1973, from 10 800 to 5 300 tons, after an initial increase of less than 3 percent and 2 percent respectively in 1969 and 1970. The records show that since 1971, the rate of reduction has been accelerating. Thus the reduction between 1971 and 1972 was about 11 percent, but between 1972 and 1973, the reduction was 32 percent. Furthermore, comparison of the weight of processed fish sold at Mopti during the first quarter of 1973 and that of 1974 shows a further reduction of 39 percent (Table V). The situation is indeed gloomy. Besides, because of the general shortage of food and other forms of animal protein, the proportion of processed fish utilized internally in Mali, which used to be well below that exported, has been increasing and since 1970 has exceeded the proportion exported (Table VI).
It is also worth reporting here that the commercial fishery terminal with its embarkment complex of wharves built at Mopti with aid from the EEC has been out of use for some time because of insufficient water at the port (Figure 4).
As the fish population decreased because of the initial rapid increase in fishing intensity and the lack of sufficient recruitment owing to reduced spawning and feeding grounds, the total fishing effort also decreased. It is difficult to assess this reduction accurately, but in Chad it is believed to be as much as 50 percent, and in Senegal Government officials also maintain that at least a 50 percent reduction in the number of fishermen operating in the ‘Région du Fleuve’ must have occurred since the drought started. In the latter it seems the general tendency has been for more young people to migrate away from the drought-stricken fishing communities than the older members of the population. Consequently, most fishing communities in the ‘Région du Fleuve’ comprise mainly older men, women and children, the young active group having left for urban centres where they increase the already high unemployment rate, thereby causing serious socio-economic problems.
Unlike in Senegal where the total fishing effort sharply declined following the rapid reduction in the fish population, in Mali no striking reduction in the number of fishermen attributable to the direct effect of the drought was observed. It seems emigration to urban areas is very limited in Mali at least among the fishing population. This may be due to the fact that the Bogos and the Somonos, who are the major fishing tribes, are not used to other types of occupation, hence they continue to fish even though the catch per unit effort continues to decline. Instead of resorting to other activities, these fishermen go on reducing the mesh sizes of their fishing nets so as to catch even the smallest sizes of fish available. Nets with mesh sizes of 10 to 20 mm are commonly used instead of the legal mesh size of 25 mm. The fishermen have also changed their method of fishing. The barrage method of fishing which used to be very popular before the drought is rarely practised nowadays because it is not productive enough, the fishermen complain. Cast nets, gill-nets (in deeper areas) and hooks and lines are now the principal gears employed, both in Mali and Senegal.
Despite the general sharp reduction in the number of fishermen, especially in Senegal, the catch per unit effort continues to decline and small immature fish now dominate the fishery. Before the drought, fish of 10 kg were common, but nowadays those of even 1 kg are very rare especially in River Senegal and in many parts of River Niger. Though when caught they are fined and their nets are confiscated, the fishermen in these areas continue to use nets of 10 to 20 mm mesh sizes instead of the legal mesh size of 25 to 30 mm generally accepted in these countries. Thus the situation continues to deteriorate, and some parts of both rivers are now reported to be completely depleted of fishery resources.
Apart from the continuous decline in the catch per unit effort, in Lake Chad, it is observed that some economically important species are no longer appearing in the fishery (e.g. Labeo coubie), while some others only appear in one size group. For example, it is reported that only large Alestes are nowadays caught in certain portions of this lake, which clearly indicates the lack of recruitment as a result of little or no reproduction of the species concerned.
The phenomena described in the last few pages vividly portray the magnitude and critical nature of the situation, and clearly point to the fact that the maximum limit of exploitation is already being exceeded in some water systems, Lake Chad for example, and that if appropriate regulatory measures are not enforced now, some fish species especially in Lake Chad may become extinct before long.
The above effects on the fishing industry have provoked serious socio-economic problems in the Sahel. In all the countries visited, the two to three-fold increase in the prices of fish has not been sufficient to counterbalance the sharp progressive reduction in the production generally observed since 1972. Consequently, the incomes of fishermen in the Sahel are still declining, and because of the reduced income, fishermen now barter for other necessary food such as millet, sorghum and rice, a phenomenon which was rare in normal times.
It is reported that in some areas, fishermen's incomes have been reduced by as much as 90 percent without of course any corresponding decrease in the number of their dependents. In one fishing community near Richard-Toll in Senegal, some fishermen interviewed assessed their present daily income as about 2 000 francs CFA per group of 7 to 10 fishermen with a total number of not less than 50 dependents. This income is certainly too meagre to support such a large number of dependents. Though they did not admit it, there is evidence to believe that these fishermen, like those observed in some of the other communities visited, probably do some supplementary agricultural activities such as growing rice and potatoes in order to avoid possible mass starvation. For example, in the lake districts of Lake Vendou Edy and Guiers Lake, because fishing is no longer considered profitable, the inhabitants set up small camps around the lakes and carry out other activities to supplement their fishing, such as growing millets, rice and sorghum on the dried up shores of the lakes, as well as keeping some domestic animals - goats, sheep, etc. It is worth mentioning that in these communities, everybody contributes to the economic strength of the group. While the men and women work in the small farms, the young children especially the boys (some below twelve years of age) keep the animals.
According to government sources, in Senegal, before the drought, there used to be some active fishermen's cooperatives in the ‘Région du Fleuve’ and fishermen used to receive loans from the “Banque Nationale de Développement du Sénégal (B.N.D.S.)” through their cooperatives to buy fishing gear and equipment - a sort of a revolving loan scheme arrangement. This has now been suspended, at least for the time being, because the fishermen were not able to keep up with their instalment payments. Consequently, the fishermen now complain of the lack of fishing gear and equipment, including pirogues, nets, hooks, floats, etc.
As remarked earlier, those who leave the rural fishing communities for urban centres also constitute a social problem. The majority of them become jobless, thus increasing the already high unemployment rate in the urban centres where they cause problems normally associated with unemployment and idleness. It is obvious that since the drought started, the number of beggars in urban centres have increased, certainly in the streets of the major industrial cities.
The situation is certainly critical and pathetic and calls for serious consideration and urgent international action.
The long-term effects of the drought are difficult to determine as it is not yet clear whether the climatic conditions are the result of short-term or long-term trends. However, as pointed out earlier in this paper, the immediate effects have caused a progressive dwindling of the water bodies available for the reproduction and growth of fish, the interruption of the flood cycles of river systems and the diminution of river flow throughout the area. These effects have provoked a progressive reduction in fish production and, consequently, an increase in the sensitivity to mismanagement of the remaining fish stocks. In addition, the drought has created serious socio-economic problems in the Sahel, and caused enormous protein shortages in the region.
From the foregoing summary, it can be concluded that the situation is hopeless in some places and near critical in others. The morale of the fishermen is now very low and their initial courage and efforts to combat this catastrophe are fast disappearing as their economic situation continues to deteriorate and no signs of a return to normality and the consequent improvement of the fishery situation seem apparent.
But this already catastrophic situation can be further deteriorated through ill-planned development of the river systems for other necessary and desirable uses, such as irrigation, hydro-electricity, navigation and other industrial purposes, and the consequent conflicting demand for the water. Damming of rivers for irrigation and hydro-electricity, for example, is known to affect the patterns of flow and flood systems of the rivers, and in consequence, the stocks of fish throughout the river systems are imperilled. For instance, it has been estimated by a French Engineering Consultant Firm, Norbert Beyrard, that Senegal would lose about 9 000 tons of fish per year from the planned damming of the River Senegal at Manantali (Mali) for hydro-electricity and at Diama (Senegal) for irrigation. However, against this loss are the benefits that Senegal could derive from the several thousand acres of agricultural land that would be irrigated through the damming of the river. This is a classical example of the conflicts of interests which sometimes are associated with development projects. Perhaps such conflicts can be minimized if the planning and implementation of development schemes are based on careful economic analysis of the respective advantages and disadvantages. Besides, further studies on the ecology of the river systems and the interactions between the different requirements for alternative uses are more than desirable.
If the present fishery situation does not improve, it would lead to chaotic economic and social implications in the Sahel. At present, the socio-economic climate in the area is bad enough and should not be allowed to deteriorate further.
At the moment, my assessment is that even if the drought ceases now and normal rains and floods return, the fishery in the Sahel, especially of the River Senegal and the Niger River Basin, will take a while, perhaps a long while, to recover from the disastrous effects of the past six long years of continuous drought. Certainly the long-term outlook is at best grim for the fisheries of the Sahel. Some government officials in the area are however optimistic that once normal conditions return and normal flooding resumes, the fishery will easily recover. But judging from the foregoing, it would be premature and indeed unwise to fully endorse such an opinion and optimism. On the contrary, there is a growing fear that if appropriate regulatory and rational management measures are not introduced and enforced now, some fish species might become extinct before long, and it would be more difficult to take effective measures that would lead to a rapid recovery of the fishery. As reported earlier, some fish species (e.g. Labeo coubie) are already disappearing from the fishery. A catastrophe of this magnitude is obviously beyond the national capabilities of the Sahel countries alone. Hence it is strongly recommended that an integrated programme of rehabilitation and development of the fishery in the Sahel through concerted bilateral multilateral and international efforts be initiated without delay.
While the immediate problems of protein shortages, currently being handled by international relief operations, could be further enhanced considerably if appropriate ways and means of diverting substantial supplies of fish from the marine sector are devised, the medium and long-term problems of rehabilitation and development of the fisheries require careful consideration and rational planning. Perhaps a realistic and meaningful approach to the problem would be first for an international task force to visit the area and make a more comprehensive assessment of the situation so as to be able to work out the details of the integrated programme necessary for the rehabilitation and development of the fisheries in the affected countries. Hence the suggestions provided below should be considered as preliminary ideas for consideration pending the outcome of the task force being proposed.
The rehabilitation aspect of the programme being advocated in this paper could be achieved through well planned aquacultural methods, specifically either through large-scale fish farming ventures or through the restocking of the available water systems, especially rivers such as Bani, Chari/Logone, Niger and Senegal, with fingerlings of selected species raised in hatcheries set up at selected locations along the rivers and lakeshores. The former idea, that of fish farming, will assist in providing the critically needed cheap protein which has indeed been in very short supply following the heavy toll which the drought took on livestock in the region. The latter idea, that of restocking, on the other hand, will help to offset and supplement the present low level of reproduction of fish in the available water systems, and thereby facilitate and expedite the recovery of the fishery. Furthermore, a successful restocking programme will also help to revive the livelihood of fishermen and thereby assist in reducing their present hardship and suffering.
In connexion with fish farming, it is necessary to mention that there are many lakes, reservoirs, embankments and dams in the area, which offer good opportunities for direct as well as enclosure and cage culture of some fish species. In each case, however, it is necessary that the most suitable, appropriate, feasible and practicable methods of aquaculture be employed and encouraged, so that the efforts will finally lead to an increase in the overall protein production in the area.
If a restocking scheme is envisaged, certain basic facts and problems have to be considered. In the first place, propagation techniques have yet to be developed for many of the economically important species which appear to have been adversely affected by the drought. Besides, extensive hatchery, nursery and rearing facilities will be required for the effective operation of a stocking programme, and other problems particularly of logistic and practical nature have also to be considered. Though these facts will involve sizeable investments in terms of money, effort and technical expertise, it is however felt that the problems that are likely to arise will not be beyond the scope of human endeavour to surmount provided there is international solidarity, compassion and cooperation.
Since the breeding habits of many of the species are not well known, it is necessary that the selection of species to be used for the hatchery scheme be done through an initial period of intensive laboratory experimentation. Perhaps an efficient and realistic way of achieving this objective will be by setting up an internationally financed and staffed hydrobiological laboratory or institute in the Sahel, such as has been contemplated by the FAO Committee for Inland Fisheries of Africa (CIFA) in the past. Such an institute will not only serve the immediate purpose of carrying out research programmes designed to assist in the selection of suitable species for the hatchery scheme, but will also conduct other basic biological research programmes which will elicit information indispensable in the formulation of rational fishery regulatory and management measures that will protect and perpetuate Sahelian fisheries. Specifically, such research as the population dynamics and the spawning biology and fecundity of the main commercial species, including size and age compositions of the spawning stock, fish migrations, mortalities, stock assessment and collection of catch and effort statistics could be undertaken. And as time goes on, its activities could be expanded to include research on the problems of product development and quality control.
In addition, the institute suggested above could from the centre for the training of future fisheries researchers and extension workers who will form the nucleus for a continuous programme of rehabilitation as well as development and expansion of the fisheries in the region. Also, since the fishery resources remaining in some of the water systems are not known, it may be expedient to take an inventory of the fish species remaining in each water system and the hydrobiological laboratory, if and when established, could undertake this study as its first priorities, if possible before any stocking exercise is contemplated. Alternatively, this study could be undertaken by government fisheries bodies or services.
Alternatively, and to save time, the selection of species for the hatchery programme, to start with could be based on an objective analysis of the results of completed or on-going aquaculture projects in the region or elsewhere in the tropics. It is important that the species selected should be easily adaptable to the local ecological conditions. Or quicker still, perhaps fingerlings of species which are known to adapt easily to the present ecological conditions in the Sahel could be obtained from fish culture stations in other parts of Africa and elsewhere and used for the restocking programme. In this connexion, it is worth-while to mention that species such as Clarias and Polypterus are capable of withstanding shallow warm water conditions and could be considered for introduction in areas where water levels are continually dropping. Unfortunately, however, these species are reputed to be unpopular with the local people. But it is believed that under the present critical situation these species could perhaps be popularized considerably among the local people merely by means of promotional propaganda activities by appropriate government institutions and services.
Besides the above ideas, one other possible way of rehabilitating the affected fisheries is by devising ways of improving the affected fish environments by attempting to provide or recreate some of the important conditions and requirements known to be necessary and vital for fish reproduction, but which have disappeared in the Sahelian water systems because of lack of flood. For instance, for fish species that require aquatic vegetation for their reproduction (e.g. Clarias and Polypterus), these could be grown at appropriate and selected areas of the water bodies. Similarly, for those species which need pools of water or high tide for their breeding, these conditions could be artificially created or provided within the respective water systems. It is important to stress that this approach can only achieve limited success because the number of brood fish remaining in the available water bodies may not be sufficient to effect adequate recruitment even if the conditions are ideal for their breeding. Of course, for this scheme to be effective at all, the brood fish left in the rivers as well as the fingerlings they produce must be protected and this is not easy to achieve as pointed out below.
The success of the rehabilitation programme, in particular the restocking scheme, will largely depend on the cooperation of the fishermen and the governments in ensuring that the fish especially the fingerlings introduced into the water systems are given a chance to grow. This calls for some management and regulatory measures such as introduction of appropriate minimum mesh sizes, creation of nonfishable zones, limitation of fishing effort and/or total catch, etc. The management and regulatory measures to be adopted could be worked out for each water system by a fishery committee comprising representatives from all the countries bordering the particular water system or in cases where a coordinating body for the water system already exists, by that body. For example, the Niger River Commission could undertake to work out the set of management regulations for the River Niger, while the Lake Chad Basin Commission does that for Lake Chad. For River Senegal, the Senegal River Basin Authority (O.M.V.S., i.e. Organisation pour la Mise en Valeur du Fleuve Sénégal) will take the responsibility for working out the most appropriate management and regulatory measures. For the water systems which are not international, the national body, service, department or bureau responsible for inland fishery matters in the country could undertake the task.
It is fully recognized that management measures are useless unless they are enforced. Furthermore, management regulations for international water systems will be ineffective if they are partially or unilaterally enforced. For such international water systems, a close cooperation and collaboration between the various countries using the same source of water systems is necessary to enforce the management measures so as to ensure the optimum exploitation of the resources on a sustained basis, and thus serve the long-term interests of all countries concerned.
While the existing international bodies referred to above could play a major role in this exercise, it is imperative that the national government fishery bodies also participate actively in the enforcement of the regulations especially in their own individual territories. Unfortunately, at present, the countries concerned are generally limited by lack of personnel and necessary facilities to effectively enforce the fishing regulations. Perhaps, the programme could assist countries by training personnel and providing basic facilities such as fast boats or launches for regular patrol of the water systems.
Additionally, the exercise could be enhanced by the provision of the right fishing materials (nets, hooks) to fishermen either through cooperative revolving loan schemes or through other arrangements suitable to the particular locality and circumstances. Importation licences for fishing equipment and gear could be given only to those willing to comply with the established regulations regarding the particular equipment or gear. Local net manufacturers could be checked regularly to ensure that they respect the established minimum mesh-size regulation. Government fisheries officers could control the sale of under-sized fish at local markets, and, where cooperative storage, processing, distribution and marketing schemes are utilized, the officers-in-charge could reject under-sized fish.
It is well known that fishermen are usually skeptical about new introductions but I am convinced that they would cooperate if it is practically demonstrated to them that these regulations are economically advantageous to them. Hence it is suggested that any set of fishery management regulations introduced should be publicized through local news media - television and radio in local dialects if possible and practicable, newspapers, etc. and also audio-visually where this is possible. Such a publicity programme should attempt to outline the economic benefits of the measures. This could be supplemented with a national education programme in the fishing communities to assist fishermen to understand the basis for the establishment of the regulations and to respect them. Perhaps, this is where audio-visual methods could be most effective and useful.
The details of all the above-suggested lines of actions and the different ways of effecting them should be a matter for the respective governments, commissions, etc. to work out. Perhaps the task force suggested could help in this venture. However, it is necessary to point out that effective local cooperative movements would tremendously enhance the implementation of the measures.
Finally, it should be emphasized that whichever methods or ideas are adopted for rehabilitating the affected fisheries, they should not be mutually exclusive, but rather they should be complementary, and geared toward providing enough employment opportunities to displaced fishermen, and possibly restore their livelihood.
For the development aspect of the programme to be meaningful and rational, it should be multi-sided, based on a clear recognition and understanding of the bottlenecks presently inhibiting the development of the fishing industry. This means first identifying the bottlenecks and then finding appropriate solutions and ways of improvement. The main bottlenecks at present limiting further expansion and development of the fishing industry in the Sahel include poor handling, inefficient preservation, storage and processing methods, inadequate distribution, transport and marketing facilities, and lack of personnel. For simplicity, each group of bottlenecks is briefly dealt with separately.
(i) Handling, Preservation, Storage and Processing
Because of the rapid rate of deterioriation due to improper handling, the majority of the fish caught in the Sahel has to be conserved, daily on site, by primitive methods - fermenting, sun-drying, smoking or grasssingeing. Consequently, only a minor proportion of the catch is marketed fresh. However, studies conducted in some of the countries in the area indicate that prospective consumers in these countries would be more attracted by fresh fish if these products could be supplied in good quantities, quality and condition and at competitive prices. This means that perhaps fresh fish could be made more popular simply by the use of ice and better storage methods. Unfortunately, ice-making plants are very few in the region. Therefore, the establishment of small ice-making plants (5 to 10 ton/day capacity) and cold stores (10 to 25 ton capacity) at main distribution and marketing centres is recommended. The use of crushed ice by fishermen should be encouraged.
The introduction of more efficient preservation methods and the establishment of improved treatment of products (mainly smoked or dried) will help to eliminate the serious losses of useable protein presently incurred through insect infestation. It is estimated that, in the countries under consideration, because of insect infestation, approximately 30 to 40 percent of the dried and smoked products deteriorate before they are marketed. This represents a substantial loss of valuable protein. In Lake Chad alone, the loss has been estimated to be about U.S.$4 million per annum. It is essential therefore that techniques for better preservation and processing of fish should be developed. A modest scheme for rapid disinfestation carried out in Mopti, Mali, has been very effective in minimizing the loss through insect infestation. It would be helpful if more schemes of a similar nature could be set up at main distribution and marketing centres throughout the area. There is little doubt that fishermen would be prepared to adopt any new technique developed, provided adequate arrangements could be made to collect and market their products.
Other simple schemes which have proved effective include the use of solar ovens for heat treatment of infested products, and the pre-treatment of fish with salt prior to smoking or sun-drying. It should be pointed out that the use of solar ovens is only effective on a smaller scale. For larger quantities, mechanical heat treatment may have to be considered and investigations on the effects of such methods on product quality and acceptability should be undertaken prior to commercialization of the particular methods. For the pre-treatment-with-salt method, because the final product has somewhat different characteristics and needs other treatment prior to cooking, promotional efforts will be required to introduce the new product to the market.
(ii) Transport, Distribution and Marketing
Fish transportation and distribution systems in the region need improvement. There exist only a few facilities for cold storage and refrigerated transport. Consequently, the parts of the respective countries remote from the sources of production only rarely get fish and when they do, not usually in a fresh condition. It is therefore suggested that the programme, in collaboration with the respective governments, should endeavour to find ways and means of improving the existing transport and distribution system. Perhaps, the use of ice and more refrigerated or insulated vans and lorries could help to extend the distribution. Of course this calls for more and better, preferably all weather, roads on the part of the respective governments. The road network in the Sahel, especially to remote areas, is generally inadequate and certainly needs improvement. Often problems of access to markets has led to a reduction in fishery activities in the region.
Needless to emphasize that the refrigerated lorries for fish transport should be sturdily constructed in order to withstand severe road conditions. In areas where rail transport is possible, the use of insulated and refrigerated wagons should be encouraged. Where refrigerated carriage is not available, insulated containers or insulated compartments should suffice. Also more motorized fish carrier boats (locally built) with simple but adequate cooling facilities, such as ice and insulated containers, should be encouraged to operate between the remote fishing centres and the landing/distribution centres from where the fish would be transported by road or by rail in refrigerated carriage to interior markets, main consumer centres and industrial cities. Air transport of fish and fish products which is now being practised in some places is considered expensive.
In this connexion however it is worthwhile to remark that the recent fuel crisis has had a damaging effect on the fishing industry. It has raised the fish production and distribution costs which are already high because of the numerous layers of intermediaries in the complex distributive system generally operating in the region, with the result that it is now becoming increasingly difficult to produce wholesome fish especially for the remote markets at competitive prices. This is a matter which governments have to examine and consider carefully and perhaps government subsidy could be used to encourage the distribution of fish especially to areas where acute protein shortages exist.
Sanitary conditions at the markets need improvement also. Thus better marketing facilities are desirable in the region.
(iii) Personnel
This is a general problem in developing countries and does not only affect the fishing industry. The lack of personnel to enforce fishery management and regulatory measures has already been referred to earlier. Since this is a well known problem, perhaps it will suffice just to add that it affects all aspects of the fishing industry in the Sahel. Training of all levels of personnel in the fishing industry is an absolute necessity in the region. The programme should therefore make adequate provision for training.
Needless to say that some aspects of the integrated programme recommended above could be better handled as separate projects. Donors should therefore be encouraged to finance separate aspects, but a good coordination machinery is essential and necessary in order to maintain an integrated approach in implementing the above recommendations. Furthermore, it is absolutely necessary to re-emphasize that the programme should be run in close collaboration with the existing international commissions in the region, namely the Niger River Commission, the Lake Chad Basin Commission and the Senegal River Basin Authority (Organisation pour la Mise en Valeur du Fleuve Sénégal - O.M.V.S.), and the FAO Committee for Inland Fisheries of Africa (CIFA) so that these bodies could assist the programme during its lifetime and thereafter continue its activities, and thereby form the nucleus in the region for a continuous progressive rehabilitation and development of the fisheries. All existing national bodies and interstate committees, such as the Permanent Interstate Committee for the Drought Control in the Sahelian Zone (CILSS), should be kept well informed of the programme's activities.
FAO's effort in finding ways and means to implement such a modest programme of rehabilitation and development which will revive fisheries activities in the Sahel will be a notable contribution toward rural development.
Carmouze, J.P., A. Chouret and J.R. Durand, 1973. Données récentes sur l'évolution du Lac Tchad en 1972–73 (Centre ORSTOM de N'djamena): 11 pp.
Carmouze, J.P., A. Chouret and J. Franc, 1973. Etiage du Lac en 1973: Asséchement de la cuvette sud. (Centre ORSTOM de N'djamena): 8 pp.
Chouret, A., J. Franc and J. Lemoalle, 1974. Evolution hydrologique du Lac Tchad de Juillet à Décembre 1973 (Centre ORSTOM de N'djamena): 9 pp.
CILSS, 1974 (Comité Interétats de Lutte contre la Sécheresse dans le Sahel). Confidential draft No. 2, compendium of projects for six Sahelian countries of West Africa. 400 projects for drought relief. MS
Durand, J.R., 1970. Les peuplements ichtyologiques de l'el Beid. Première note: Présentation du milieu et résultats généraux. Cah. ORSTOM, Ser. Hydrobiol., Vol.IV, No.1, 1970 pp. 3–26
Durand, J.R., 1973. Note on the evolution of fisheries centres of the Lake Chad 1963–71. Preliminary Report (Centre ORSTOM de N'djamena): 10 pp.
Loubens, G., 1973. Production de la pêche et peuplements ichtyologiques d'un bief du delta du Chari (Centre ORSTOM de N'djamena): 50 pp.
Macher, H., 1973. Etude biologique des zones de pêche dans le cercle de Mopti. Service des Eaux et Forêts, Opération Pêche, Mopti.
Anon. 1974. Les effets de la sécheresse sur l'environnement en zone Sahelo-Soudanienne. Conférence de Ouagadougou sur les problèmes de la sécheresse (Direction des Eaux et Forêts, Dakar): MS, 11 pp.
Anon. 1974, Statistiques de commercialisation du poisson (Mali) 1966–74 (Opération Pêche, Mopti): MS, 8 pp.
TABLE I
Height of River Niger and River Bani at Mopti, Mali 1959–73
| YEAR | HEIGHT (in metres) | ||
| maximum (October) | minimum (June) | ||
| 1959–65 | Both Rivers | 6.95 | 0.87 |
| 1971 | River Bani | 6.51 | - |
| River Niger | 6.34 | - | |
| 1972 | River Bani | 5.65 | 0.60 |
| River Niger | 5.52 | 0.51 | |
| 1973 | River Bani | 5.68 | 0.20 |
| River Niger | 5.53 | 0.13 | |
TABLE II
Estimated Total Fish Production in Lake Chad
(including lower “biefs” of the Chari), 1969–72
| Year | Production (in tons) |
| 1969 | 46 000–50 000 |
| 1970 | 52 000–57 000 |
| 1971 | 91 000–99 000 |
| 1972 | 130 000–141 000 |
TABLE III
Senegal: Inland Fish Production in the ‘Région du Fleuve’ - 1968–73
| Years | Production (in tons) | ||
| River Senegal | Lake Guiers | Total | |
| 1968 | 23 800–28 800 | 1 200 | 25–30 000 ? |
| 1969 | 19 500 | 500 | 20 000 |
| 1970 | 20 000 | Closed | 20 000 |
| 1971 | 18 800 | Closed | 18 000 ? |
| 1972 | 11 000 | 1 000 | 12 000 |
| 1973 | 5 100 | 300 | 6 400 ? |
TABLE IV
Weight of Processed (Smoked and Dried) Fish Recorded at the Mopti Market 1967–73
| Year | Weight of Processed Fish (in tons) | |||||||
| Smoked | Dried | Annual Total | Percent annual increase | |||||
| Internal | Export | Total | Internal | Export | Total | |||
| 1967 | 1 882 | 2 816 | 4 698 | 1 800 | 3 026 | 4 826 | 9 524 | - |
| 1968 | 2 034 | 3 756 | 5 790 | 2 033 | 3 022 | 5 055 | 10 845 | 13.9 |
| 1969 | 2 586 | 2 626 | 5 212 | 2 612 | 3 299 | 5 911 | 11 123 | 2.6 |
| 1970 | 2 582 | 3 247 | 5 829 | 3 466 | 1 901 | 5 367 | 11 296 | 1.6 |
| 1971 | 2 470 | 2 799 | 5 269 | 2 505 | 1 069 | 3 574 | 8 843 | -21.7 |
| 1972 | 2 516 | 1 598 | 4 114 | 2 489 | 1 252 | 3 741 | 7 855 | -11.2 |
| 1973 | 1 987 | 924 | 2 911 | 1 832 | 590 | 2 422 | 5 333 | -32.1 |
TABLE V
Mali: Comparison of the Weight of Processed Fish Recorded During January–March at the Mopti Market in 1973 and 1974
| Month | 1973 | 1974 | Percent Reduction | ||||||
| Smoked | Dried | Total | Smoked | Dried | Total | Smoked | Dried | Total | |
| January | 413 | 147 | 560 | 308 | 140 | 448 | 25.4 | 4.8 | 20.0 |
| February | 445 | 248 | 693 | 227 | 98 | 325 | 49.0 | 60.5 | 53.1 |
| March | 373 | 301 | 674 | 247 | 150 | 397 | 33.8 | 50.2 | 41.1 |
| 1 231 | 696 | 1 927 | 782 | 388 | 1 170 | 36.5 | 44.3 | 39.3 | |
TABLE VI
Mali: Comparison of Processed Fish Marketed Internally and Exported at Mopti, 1967–73
| Year | Weight of Processed Fish (in tons) | |||||||
| Internal | Export | Percentage Used | ||||||
| Smoked | Dried | Total | Smoked | Dried | Total | Internally | Exported | |
| 1967 | 1 882 | 1 800 | 3 682 | 2 816 | 3 026 | 5 842 | 38.7 | 61.3 |
| 1968 | 2 034 | 2 033 | 4 067 | 3 756 | 3 022 | 6 778 | 37.5 | 62.5 |
| 1969 | 2 586 | 2 612 | 5 198 | 2 626 | 3 299 | 5 925 | 46.7 | 53.3 |
| 1970 | 2 582 | 3 466 | 6 048 | 3 247 | 1 901 | 5 148 | 53.5 | 46.5 |
| 1971 | 2 470 | 2 505 | 4 975 | 2 799 | 1 069 | 3 868 | 56.3 | 43.7 |
| 1972 | 2 516 | 2 489 | 5 005 | 1 598 | 1 252 | 2 850 | 63.7 | 36.3 |
| 1973 | 1 987 | 1 832 | 3 819 | 924 | 590 | 1 514 | 71.7 | 28.3 |
 | zones exondées avec végétation exposed lake bottom with plant cover |
 | eaux libres open waters |
 | zones inondées à végétation dense flooded lake bottom with dense plant cover |
 | archipel en eau archipelago in water |
Figure 1 Carte schématique du lac Tchad au début de juillet 1973
Map of Lake Chad at the beginning of July 1973
 | zones exondées avec végétation exposed lake bottom with plant cover |
| eaux libres open waters |
 | zones inondées à végétation dense flooded lake bottom with dense plant cover |
| archipel en eau archipelago in water |
Figure 2 Carte schématique du lac Tchad en décembre 1973
Map of Lake Chad in December 1973
Figure 3 Le Chari à N'Djamena
Chari River at N'Djamena
hydrogrammes caractéristiques typical flow rate hydrographs
- le débit en m3/s au cours
de l'année hydrologique
discharge in m3/s during
the hydrologic year
Figure 4 Le Chari à N'Djamena
Chari River at N'Djamena
- comparaison de deux crues exceptionnelles (1961 et 1972) et
d'une crue proche de la moyenne (1971); H représente la cote en
m à l'échelle
- comparison of two unusual floods (1961 and 1972) and one nearly
average flood (1971); H stands for the elevation in m on the
scale
