Segunda parte
(Second part - Deuxième partie)

RESUMENES POR PAIS

(COUNTRY BRIEFS - RESUMES PAR PAYS) (continuar)

REPUBLICA DOMINICANA (continuar)

2. Tendencias actuales

2.1 Vegetación leñosa natural

2.1.1 Deforestación

La deforestación fue estimada basándose en lo siguiente:

• agricultura migratoria: según (8), en 1970 la población era de 4 006 000 habitantes, de los cuales 2 413 000 (60.2 por ciento) residían en áreas rurales. La población rural, en la zona “Línea Noroeste”, tiene un incremento de 0.9 por ciento, y la población total de 3.0 por ciento (el incremento de la población urbana es de 5.9 por ciento).

Según (6), alrededor de 280 000 ha. fueron afectadas por la agricultura nómada en 1970. Si se aplica la tasa de incremento de la población rural indicada arriba para todo el país durante el último decenio se llega en 1980 a 306 000 ¹ ha. afectadas, o sea a una diferencia de 26 000 ha. en 10 años (o 2 600 ha. anuales), de las cuales se estima que el 60 por ciento se efectúa en NHCf y el 40 por ciento en NSf. Dentro de estas categorías, las reducciones debidas a la agricultura migratoria se calcularon de acuerdo a las áreas respectivas en existencia.;

• agricultura permanente: de acuerdo a (8) fue estimada tentativamente en unas 700 ha. anuales, distribuídas según las áreas existentes en cada categoría

Deforestación promedia anual

Períodos:

Fuera de la destrucción de los bosques densos (NHCf, NSf) existe una deforestación por la agricultura permanente en los tipos de barbecho debido a la presión de la población la cual ha sido estimada en unas 1000 ha.

Areas de vegetación leñosa natural estimadas para fines de 1985
(en miles de ha.)

Patrón y causas de la deforestación

Es probable que las tierras bajas más húmedas fueran despojadas de la mayor parte de su vegetación forestal en tiempos de los primeros colonizadores españoles, aunque la isla estaba poblada por una sociedad indígena bastante numerosa, basada en la agricultura. Como consecuencia de la despoblación producida en los siglos XVI y XVII, las tierras de cultivo abandonadas se vieron invadidas por una vegetación arbórea, en la que predominaban las especies precursoras, siendo entre ellas las más conocidas la caoba (Swietenia mahogany) y el espinillo (Xanthoxilum flavum), cuyo empleo para la construcción de muebles cundió en Europa durante los siglos XVIII y XIX, por lo que se intensificaron cada vez más las operaciones de explotación de madera. El rápido aumento de la producción de azúcar, que compitió con los bosques de caoba por las fajas llanas más fértiles, hizo que estos recursos madereros desaparecieran prácticamente durante la primera mitad del siglo XX.

Los pinares primitivos estaban situados probablemente en las zonas montañosas de mayor altura. Las invasiones, guerras e insurrecciones que se sucedieron obligaron a las poblaciones urbanas de las tierras bajas a huir a las montañas y practicar una agricultura elemental, que motivó extensas quemas y creó condiciones apropiadas para la proliferación del pino donde antes había bosques de frondosas. Estos bosques sufrieron una aguda explotación maderera en el período comprendido entre 1930 y 1967 (4).

¹ La diferencia entre esta cifra y el área en 1980 (267 000 ha.) de N.a se debe al hecho que el documento (6) en el cual se basó para calcular el área de N.a tiene una delimitación más estricta del concepto agricultura migratoria. En la cifra de 306 000 ha. posiblemente están incluídas áreas con pastoreo y fuego frecuente.

2.1.2 Degradación

Los elementos principales de degradación son los siguientes (6):

• degradación de bosques de pinos por sobreexplotación;
• reducción del incremento y la muerte de árboles por la infección de muérdago (pinos);
• pudrición de los troncos y la muerte de árboles, debido a las cicatrices de quemaduras sufridas. Según (6) llega la pérdida de “madera industrial” por pudrición a tener el volumen de las explotaciones anteriores efectuadas por los aserraderos, lo que equivale a 120–150 000 m³ al año, o según (6) a 2.3 m³/ha/año;
• reducción del incremento debido a los daños sufridos por el fuego;
• destrucción de la regeneración por el fuego. Según (4) se quemaron anualmente en la década 62–72 unas 16 000 ha. de áreas forestales, y es muy probable que esto siga hoy en día. La zona boscosa más afectada es la zona de la Cordillera Central.

2.1.3 Tendencias en el aprovechamiento

No se puede prever cuando serán permitidas nuevamente las explotaciones forestales por los aserraderos. Mientras tanto, el consumo de leña y carbón debería sobrepasar los 2 000 000 de m³ por año en 1985.

2.2 Plantaciones

Según (9), a partir del año 1981 el país tiene programado plantar anualmente 2 000 ha. en su mayoría para la protección de cuencas hidrógraficas. Este objetivo es muy ambicioso por lo menos en los primeros años, considerando una realización efectiva del 25% de este objetivo, se llega al siguiente cuadro:

Areas de plantaciones estimadas para fines de 1985
(en miles de ha.)

Bibliografía

(1) OAS, General Secretariat 1969 “Survey of the natural resources of the Dominican Republic”-Vol. I and II - Washington D.C.

(2) FAO 1970 “Inventariación y fomento de los recursos forestales - Industrias forestales”-FO:SF/DOM 8 - Documento de trabajo 3 - Santo Domingo

(3) FAO 1972 “Inventario y fomento de los recursos forestales - Plan modelo de manejo forestal”-FO:SF/DOM 8 - Informe técnico 4 - Roma

(4) FAO 1972 “Inventario y fomento de los recursos forestales - Informe sobre los resultados, conclusiones y recomendaciones del proyecto” - FO:SF/DOM 8 - Roma

(5) FAO 1972 “Informe sobre la República Dominicana” (11 pp.) (mimeógrafo) - Roma

(6) FAO 1973 “Inventario y fomento de los recursos forestales - Inventario forestal”-FO:SF/DOM 8-Informe técnico 3 - Roma

(7) FAO 1974 “Inventario y fomento de los recursos forestales - Política y legislación forestal: revisión del proyecto de ley forestal” - FO:SF/DOM 8 - Informe técnico 6 - basado en la labor de Salvador Grau Fernández - Roma

(8) OEA 1977 Secretaría general de la Organización de los Estados Americanos “Plan de acción para el desarrollo regional de la línea Noroeste” - Washington D.C.

(9) Mota Henríquez, J.M. 1979 Carta a L. Huguet, FAO, de fecha 31 de julio de 1979 - Santo Domingo

SURINAM

Surinam is situated on the north coast of South America, between latitudes 2° and 6° north and longitudes 54° and 58° west. It covers an area of 163 820 km². Its western border with Guyana is formed by the Courantyne river and in the east with French Guiana by the Marowyne river. Apart from these, there are six major rivers, flowing generally from south to north, turning westwards in the coastal area.

The interior of the country consists of a dissected peneplain, sloping gently towards the low-lying coastal region, between ranges of hills and low mountains (maximum 1 280 m a.s.l.). Topography varies from undulating to steep and rugged. Mean annual rainfall ranges from 2 000 to 2 500 mm, with driest month (October) generally receiving over 60 mm. Locally rainfall may be higher (central mountain ranges) or lower (in a narrow coastal strip and in the south western part of the country) than the indicated range. The main rainfall occurs from April to July or August, with another ill-defined wet season in December/January. Average temperature is around 27° C all year round. A geographic division into four main natural regions is generally made which is useful also for soils and vegetation:

• the young coastal plain increasing in width from 10 km in the east to 50 km in the west, but which can intrude locally deeply into the old coastal plain. It forms by far the most important agricultural zone of the country. Large areas of this region are at sea level or below;

• the old coastal plain does not form a continuous zone, but consists of hundreds of undulating surfaces, separated by creek systems and swamps belonging to the young coastal plain. There is some farming and cattle;

• the “Zandery” landscape is a dissected plain, rising from 10 to 70 m.a.s.l. It consists of bleached white quartz sands and unbleached yellow or brown sands, forming a continuous belt across the country. Some shifting cultivation is practised by amerindians;

• the old basement complex forms the remaining 80% of the country, and consists of lowlands and uplands south of the coastal sedimentary basis. This zone corresponds with “the lowland region” and “the southern uplands” in Guyana. It forms part of the pre-cambrium Guyana shield. However, sandstone mountains exist only in a few places in the central ranges of the country, in contrast with Guyana where the Roraima and Pakaraima mountains extend over large areas.

The practically uninhabited forests are interrupted by a few patches of savanna and brushland. Shifting cultivation is practised by bushnegroes and amerindians.

The population almost entirely concentrated in the littoral zone amounts to nearly half a million inhabitants, with an annual growth rate of 3.0% approximately.

1. Present situation

1.1 Natural woody vegetation

1.1.1 Description of the vegetation types

The following vegetation classification was adapted in analogy with the classification used for Guyana and and based on (1) and (3).

Closed broadleaved formations (NHC)

• Rainforest (called in (1) “hoog drooglandbos”, “high dryland forest”): in its most abundant form it shows three or four storeys, with emergents up to 45 m. The lower storey attains between 25 and 30 m. Underneath appears an undergrowth consisting of small trees and poles. In the northwestern part of Surinam the emergents are not so conspicuous, the forest is less dense and generally the number of storeys is limited to two or three. Palms are common: paramaka (Astrocaryum paramacca) and boegroemaka (A. sciophyllum), Attalea spp. in the undergrowth and up in the canopy koemboe (Oenocarpus bacaba). Lianes are fairly uncommon. The total number of species over 25 cm diameter is around 140 and about 50 different ones per ha. The forest is evergreen. Very often a few species only are dominant but to a high degree. Among these are Qualea spp., Protium spp., manbarklak (Eschweilera spp.), wallaba (Eperua falcata), Micropholis spp., foengae (Licania spp.), Pouteria surinamensis, Piptadenia suaveolens, Vouacapoua americana, Tetragastris spp, Inga spp. Dicorynia guianensis. Underneath occur Vochysia spp., Lecythis spp. and Couratari spp. among others. Goupia glabra, Cecropia spp. and Jacaranda copaia occupy natural clearings.

A somewhat poorer form of rainforest called “ritsbos” consists of two storeys up to 30 m. The undergrowth is formed by palms. In the upper storey occur Hymenea courbaril, Cedrela odorata, Simaruba amara and Licania spp.; the latter are becoming dominant in the east of the country.

On shallow soils patches of “climber forest”, without storeys may appear. Trees are widely spaced and openings are filled with lianes and climbers.

• Dry evergreen forest (“Hoog savannebos”, “high savanna forest”) is two-storeyed, with a closed upper canopy reaching 25 to 30 m in height. Big trees are scarce. Palms are few and small. Dominant species are the same as in the rainforest. It occurs on deep white sands. When one (or more) species is particularly dominant the following types are distinguished:

• the walaba forest with Eperua falcata occurring in all sizes;

• the dakama forest with Dimorphandra conjugata. In this forest a very thick organic layer is formed on the mineral soil causing fire hazard. Herbs are absent;

• the dakama-walaba forest;

• the dakama-savanneyzerhartbos with Swartzia bannia.

In the other mixed types of dry evergreen forest the following genera are mentioned: Protium, Bombax, Ocotea, Nectandra, Licaria, Eschweilera and Licania.

• Xeromorphic woodlands (“laag savannebos”, low savanna forest) do not show any storeying. Height varies from 10 to 20 m. This type of forest is very dense and closed, and more homogeneous than the previous ones. Important species are Clusia fockaena, Licania incana, Bombax flaviflorum, Swartzia bannia, Ocotea spp. and Protium spp.

• The “bergsavannebos” or “mountain savanna forest”, corresponds to the xeromorphic rainforest in Guyana, and occurs on bauxite hills with laterisation or in the mountains of the interior where soils are thin and shallow. Predominant families are Myrtaceae and Bromeliaceae. It has no pronounced storeying and is rather low. Floristic composition is different from the previous type.

• Marsh forests are characterized by insufficient drainage, causing seasonal fluctuations in the moisture conditions, from very wet to very dry. The upper canopy is somewhat irregular, with a height between 15 and 20 m, with a very dense understorey 5 to 15 m high. Generally this forest is quite rich in species. Among the most important ones are: krapa (Carapa guianensis), nekoehoedoe (Clathrotropis brachypetala), hoepelhout (Copaifera guianensis), manbarklak, nickerie basralocus (Lonchocarpus hedyosmus), possum (Hura crepitans), kankantri (Ceiba pentandra), soemaroeba (Simaruba amaro), goebaja (Psidium spp.), groenhart (Tabebuia serratifolia), foengoe, mora (Mora excelsa) and morototo (Schefflera paraensis). In the lower storey occur Rinorea sp., Gustavia sp., and Jacaranda rhombifolia. There is a well developped herb layer. Epiphytes are very common, palms well represented: maripa (Maximiliana maripa), pina (Euterpe oleracea), koemba, maurisie (Mauritia flexuosa) in the upper storey, and in the under storey kiskismaka (Bactris spp.), tas (Geonoma spp.), paramaka and boegroemaka. In the western part concentrations of troeli (Manicaria saccifera) can be found.

Marsch forests show a considerable diversity according to local conditions. Three types are mentioned in (1):

• riparian forest (oeverbos) along the rivers, with typical species as kroebara (Pentaclethra macroloba), moeserki (Zygia spp.), rode locus (Hymenaea courbaril) and oeverwallaba (Eperua spp.). Locally palms are very dominant;

• the mora forest is considered as a special case of riparian forest, in which Mora excelsa is dominant in all layers. It occurs in the western part of Surinam along river plains seasonally inundated. Its eastern limit lies more or less along the Saramaca river. The canopy reaches a height of 35–40 m;

• creek forest occurs in the hill country, and is strongly influenced by the surrounding rain forest. Walaba is well represented in most cases;

• the possum forest occurs locally in the coastal area, where possum (Hura crepitans) becomes dominant. It is one of the trees attaining the largest diameters in Surinam (up to 250 cm);

• the krapa forest in which Carapa guianensis is dominant, especially in Western Surinam along the Corentyne river.

• Swamp forests (zwampbos) are marked by very wet conditions all year round. However, the shorter the time of inundation, the more it resembles the rain forest.

• High swamp forest is at least 20 m high, with two or more storeys. The canopy is fairly closed and consists of small crowns, between 18 and 30 m high. Characteristic species are baboen (Virola surinamensis), mataki (Symphonia globulifera), mierenhout (Triplaris surinamensis), watrabébé (Pterocarpus officinalis), zwamppanta (Tabebuia insignis) and kanamboelie (Simaba multiflora). In the understorey typical species are Diospyros sp. and Bactris sp. Many trees have spreading horizontal branches. The herb layer is present but its characteristics vary. The palm pina (Euterpe oleracea) occurs abundantly. The following types are distinguished according to location:

• high swamp forest on the recent formations of the young coastal plain and along the rivers: it is characterised by an abundancy of mierenhout and consists of a few species only;

• high swamp forest on the other formations of the young coastal plain: characterised by baboen and mataki. There is accumulation of peat (pegasse), sometimes various metres deep;

• high swamp forest on the lower parts of the old coastal plains, the low sites behind the riverbanks and on creek grounds. This is a richer forest and no species are very dominant. Peat is present only intermittently.

• low swamp forest varies in physionomy from an open scrub to a low closed forest with one storey from 10 to 15 m high. Palms and epiphytes are rare. The water is brackish or fresh. Soils are heavy clay. The forest has no large trees and is not rich in species: watrabébé, zwamppanta, mierenhout, zwampzuurzak (Annona glabra), taproepa (Genipa americana), kanamboeli, pruim (Chrysobalanus icaco) and Ficus sp.

This category includes also a forest type with a totally different physionomy, where the palm Mauritia flexuosa forms a 20 m high canopy with smaller trees of pruim and Clusia nemorosa.

• Mangrove forests cover 115 000 ha. They are one storeyed and closed, 10–25 m high. The undergrowth is restricted to ferns (Acrostichum sp.). Two types are distinguished:

• the parwa forest, along the coast with Avicennia nitida, and

• the mangro forest, along the major rivers with Rhizorphora mangle and patches of low trees of Laguncularia racemosa.

In the major river mouths a mixed type of mangrove occur with species such as Carapa guianensis and Pterocarpus officinalis.

Scrub formations (nH)

Towards the open savanna the xeromorphic woodlands change into a scrub (called “struiksavanne”), with the same floristic composition. Only Bombax flaviflorum appears as a small tree.

1.1.2 Present situation of the woody vegetation

Present areas

Areas of natural woody vegetation estimated at end 1980 (in thousand ha)

Productive closed forests (NHCf1) consist of:

Unproductive closed forests (NHCf2) are made up of:

These area figures are mostly based on (3).

Ownership (3)

Land ownership is generally vested in the state. In 1969 only 131 000 ha or 1% of total land area was private land and 137 000 ha were leasehold land (public lands given out in short or long term lease).

Legal status and management

By 1979 nine nature reserves were established and one nature park, totalling 581 000 ha. One nature reserve of about 100 000 ha “far interior savanna” landscape was awaiting legislation. Supervision of the reserves is carried out by the Forest Service. In principle the protection is total. Since 1947 43 600 ha have been classified as forest reserves.

Although envisaged there is no intensive management on a large scale. Silvicultural treatments based on natural regeneration or using strip and enrichments planting has been applied so far over 400 ha and 2 500 ha respectively, i.e. on a minute proportion of the accessible forests and can therefore be disregarded (NHCf1m = 0).

Forest utilization

Timber

Over 90% of the total timber output is cut in state-owned forest, under a system of concessions by private enterprises. The main producing area is that between the Cottica and Coppename rivers. Forest logging is at the moment largely mechanized. The output per ha is maximum 25 m³ per ha, more generally 10–15 m³/ha. Sawlogs and veneerlogs are the major products, the latter being mostly Virola plus a few newly introduced species. The number of marketable species is increasing. The major wood processing industry accepted (in 1978) 16 species for sawmilling and 7 for veneer production (compared with respectively 5 and 1 in 1965).

The production of saw and veneerlogs was estimated for 1976 by FAO (Yearbook of Forest Products) at 213 000 m³ and might be estimated around 250 000 m³ in 1980. An area of 15 000 to 20 000 ha is logged-over annually.

Other forest products

Recorded production of fuelwood amounted to some 7 000 m³ in 1969 and its unrecorded use by bushnegroes and amerindians is estimated at 20 000 m³ approximately. Production of wood for charcoal ranges in the late seventies from a few thousand to 20 000 m³ per year, most of it for exportation. Fuelwood and wood for charcoal are produced in readily accessible marsh, swamp and xerophytic stands and from forest clearings for plantations, cultivation etc.

Some tanin is extracted for local use from bark gathered in mangrove forests. Balata production is 100–150 ton per year and is all exported. Production is likely to be declining.

Growing stock estimated at end 1980
(totals in million m³)

The above figures are based on (7), where the following gross volumes per ha (DBH≥ 25 cm, under bark) were found:

The mean annual increment of merchantable tree species in exploited high forest is estimated at maximum 0.2 m³/ha/year (3).

1.2 Plantations

1.2.1 Introduction

The full planting on cleared sites with Pinus caribaea var. hondurensis was first tried on an experimental scale in 1949. The Forest Service started large-scale planting in 1956, with the objective of growing pulpwood. Afterwards in 1962, the sponsoring paper company withdrew and the objective became saw timber, while planting continued. Between 1964 and 1967 plantation rates stagnated but started again in 1968. Since 1968 also P. caribaea var. caribaea and var. bahamensis have been planted to compare with P. caribaea var. hondurensis.

1.2.2 Areas of established plantations

Areas of established industrial plantations estimated at end 1980
(in thousand ha)

1.2.3 Plantation characteristics

(volumes are net under bark, top diameter of log≥10 cm (pulp) and ≥20 cm (saw)) (3)

¹ Site class V is, as far as possible avoided.
² According to Bubberman (8) a 25% reduction should be applied to these figures due to the generally poor stocking.

2. Present trends

2.1 Natural woody vegetation

2.1.1 Deforestation

The following table shows the deforestation rates for the periods 1976–80 and 1981–85.

Average annual deforestation
(in thousand ha)

Periods

The forest area affected by shifting cultivation can be estimated by taking into account the number of farmers involved (about 6 000 in 1970 (3) and reaching maybe now 7 500) and the individual clearing estimated at 0.5 ha/year: it is considered that approximately half of the total clearing is in secondary forests (NHCa).

Tentatively another 500 ha have been earmarked for annual deforestation due to urbanisation, forest plantations, permanent agriculture, artificial lakes, etc.

Total deforestation per year amounts in this way to 2 500 ha. There is no reason to foresee significant changes in deforestation rates in the years 1981 to 1985, except perhaps the possible flooding of 125 000 ha of forests in connection with the proposed Kabalebo hydroelectric project in Western Surinam.

Areas of natural woody vegetation estimated at end 1985
(in thousand ha)

Growing stock estimated at end 1985
(in million m³)

2.1.2 Degradation

Forest fires seem to have a significant impact at periodical intervals. Serious fires occurred in 1899, 1912, 1926, 1940 and 1963–64. According to (3) the area burnt in 1963–64 was about 160 000 ha. Regular burning is probably a reason for the existence and the expansion of the low swamp vegetation. In very dry years fire may damage the Triplaris and the Virola mixed swamp forests in the coastal plain, and destroy the accumulated and dried out pegasse layer. There is evidence that the open types of savanna vegetation are sustained by periodic burning. Fires due to shifting cultivation practices in the interior rainforest do not penetrate the forest.

2.1.3 Trends in forest utilization

Due to exhausted supplies of suitable veneer species (mainly Virola) alternative species will have their production increased such as Parkia nitida, Jacaranda copaia, Sterculia etc.

2.2 Plantations

It is estimated that planting rates (P. caribaea mainly) will remain small, partly because of the fact that the existing plantation area is already relatively large in relation to the needs of the country.

Areas of industrial plantations estimated at end 1985
(in thousand ha)

Bibliography

(1) Lindeman, J.C. and Moolenaar S.P. 1955 “Voorlopig overzicht van de bostypen in het nordelijk deel van Suriname.” Paramaribo

(2) Anonymous 1966 “Questionnaire on man-made forests”. Reply of Surinam Forest Service to FAO Questionnaire for the World Symposium on Man-made Forests and their Industrial Importance (Canberra, Australia, 14–24/4/67)

(3) Vink, A.T. 1970 “Forestry in Surinam” Paramaribo

(4) FAO 1974 “Inventory of the Fallawatra area” FO:SF/SUR/71/506. Project working document No. 7, based on the work of R. de Milde and C.J. Inglis. Paramaribo

(5) FAO 1974 “Inventory of the Nassau area” FO:SF/SUR/71/506. Project working document No.8, based on the work of R. de Milde and C.J. Inglis. Paramaribo

(6) FAO 1974 “Inventory of the Kabalebo area” FO:SF/SUR/71/506. Project working document No. 9, based on the work of R. de Milde and C.J. Inglis. Paramaribo

(7) FAO 1975 “Forest Inventory” based on the work of R. de Milde. FO:DP/SUR/71/506. Technical Report No. 6. Paramaribo

(8) Department of Development, Forest Service Letter of Director General, Ir. F.C. Bubberman to Mr. M.A. Flores Rodas, Assistant Director General, Forestry Department, FAO of 23 August 1980 (including comments and corrections to first draft of country brief) - Paramaribo

Annex 1

Distribution of areas of the three Guyanas according to Unesco classification

(Unesco/C.I.T.V. Vegetation Map of South America)