The project area farming system
Uptake of technology
Responses to CSC supplementation
On-farm demonstration trials
Fattening programme entry age and weight
Cattle breeds
Comparison of anhydrous ammonia and urea as sources of ammonia
Economic aspects
Why the uptake in China? What can we learn?
Conclusions
Bibliography
FAO activities for the sustainable use of locally available feed resources
F. Dolberg and P. FinlaysonThe authors are Feed Resources Specialist and Livestock Economist, respectively, and consultants to the FAO/UNDP Project CPR 88/057.
Special acknowledgement is due to the project team technicians and scientists who undertook the trials and supervised the demonstrations, particularly Mr Gao Yong Ge. Deputy Director, Henan Livestock Bureau; Mr Zhang Wei Xian, Section Chief, Bureau of Animal Husbandry, Zhoukou Prefecture; and Mr Gu Chuan Xue, Assistant Engineer, Department of Animal Husbandry and Aquatic Products, Hebei.
Alkali treatment of fibrous crop residues to improve their digestibility in ruminant animals has been practised for many years (Jackson, 1978), and much effort worldwide has gone into research on this topic. Potential in developing countries was expected to be particularly favourable, and when it was demonstrated in work with the urea-ammoniation technology in villages in Bangladesh (Dolberg et al., 1981) during the late 1970s and early 1980s that the farmers could easily handle the procedure, a flurry of research activity followed in many developing countries (Doyle, Devendra and Pearce, 1986; Han and Garrett, 1986). Unfortunately, farmer uptake has generally been disappointing (Devendra, 1991; Owen and Jayasuriya, 1989).
There has now been a breakthrough in application in China, however, which is nothing short of spectacular because of a number of advantageous coinciding factors: it is attractive to farmers because it is profitable in the current economic environment, it is easy to learn and it fits snugly into the farming system. It also has government support since it reduces air pollution resulting from the traditional straw burning after harvest, as well as increases livestock production from a hitherto waste material, thereby replacing feedgrain concentrates for animal production.
An FAO/United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) pilot project in the provinces of Henan and Hebei from 1990 to 1992 developed the production parameters and husbandry guidelines to support its wider adoption by beef producers.
Located in the eastern central plains of China, the project areas are characterized by flat to slightly undulating land with soils of alluvial origin, moderately rich in organic matter. Despite below-zero temperatures in winter, the basic resources support two crops annually: wheat sown in the autumn on practically the whole area, followed by cotton and some maize in summer. Cropping intensity is close to 2.0 on the arable area. Underground water is exploited for supplementary irrigation of the wheat during the spring in parts of the area, and also for vegetables and medicinal crops, which are grown on small areas, usually near urban centres. The crops are heavily fertilized with organic and inorganic (up to 1.5 t/ha of urea or ammonium phosphate) fertilizers to maintain high production levels (wheat up to 4.5 t/ha). The cereal crop residues are generally removed or burnt, and are rarely incorporated because of the lack of time between crops as well as their denitrifying effect on the following crop. Land preparation, wheat seeding and harvest are mechanized, although animal and human draught is also common, while manual labour is used for the cotton and maize harvest.
Village-based smallholders occupy most of the area, with farm sizes proportional to labour availability in the range of 0.3 to 1.5 ha, while larger state farms use the remainder. Livestock comprise mainly small animals for domestic use and sale, of which pigs and poultry are most common and rabbits and birds less so. Large animals include horses, donkeys and cattle for breeding and fattening, although some are used for draught. Not all farmers raise larger animals and those who do have only a few, typically a donkey or a horse and one to three head of cattle, depending on labour resources and motivation. Maize grain is produced mainly to feed the pigs and chickens, while the stover is kept for the larger animals as semi-dry 'silage'. In recent years wheat straw and cottonseed cake (CSC) have been used to fatten cattle and manure returned to the crop area. The system is fairly stable and seems sustainable, therefore, although crop production is highly dependent on inorganic fertilizer and the treated straw requires urea, another non-farm resource. In this regard, crop and cattle production are in competition for a limited resource.
According to information provided by the Ministry of Agriculture, the quantity of straw treated in China since 1985 has risen sharply (Table 1). If used for beef production, 6 million tonnes of treated straw could produce over 300 000 tonnes of carcass meat. While the principles of residue treatment are well established (Sundstøl and Owen. 1984), it is perhaps less well appreciated that, to fully exploit the potential of an ammonia-treated straw diet, a supplement of (so-called bypass) protein is required (Preston and Leng, 1987; Saadullah, 1984). However, while the precise nature of the response is still a matter of scientific conjecture, there is no doubt about the production responses obtained in the animals.
1 - Straw treated in China - Traitement de la paille en Chine - Paja tratada en China
|
Year |
Quantity |
|
1985 |
0.003 |
|
1986 |
0.042 |
|
1987 |
0.148 |
|
1988 |
1.480 |
|
1989 |
1.830 |
|
1990 |
2.570 |
|
1991 |
3.870 |
|
1992 |
6.000 |
|
1993 |
11.000 (estimated) |
Source: Chinese Ministry of Agriculture.
To arrive at response curves for profitability analysis, several trials were undertaken to measure the effect of increasing levels of protein supplement on daily gain. Establishing this relationship has been neglected in previous research activities. The main results are presented in Table 2.
These trials met the primary objective of identifying responses to increasing levels of CSC supplementation, and they clearly demonstrated that feeding ammoniated straw alone is inadequate in terms of exploiting the great potential of a basal diet of ammoniated wheat straw for beef production. In Henan, growth rates on ammoniated straw were only 250 g/day versus 63 g/day in the Hebei trial.
From a development and resource perspective, the responses to the first 1 to 2 kg of CSC are the most interesting, because at these levels straw still constitutes around 75 percent of the diet, and straw is the most abundant feed resource in the two provinces. CSC supplementation at 1.5±0.5 kg dramatically improves feed efficiency, bringing total feed dry-matter requirements down from 20 kg or more per kilogram of liveweight gain to 10 to 12 kg.
In addition to the formal trials, the performance of the farmers' cattle during the life of the project was also monitored by regular weighings and intake measurements; 312 farmers living in 12 villages with 1 027 head of cattle were involved. As a result of the varying time periods during which the trials were conducted in each county, the overall average is presented as an approximate figure (Table 3).
2 - Influence of increasing cottonseed cake (CSC) supplementation levels - Incidence des niveaux croissants de complémentation avec un tourteau de graines de coton - Influencia del aumento del nivel de suplementación con torta de semilla de algodón
|
Henan | |||||||
|
CSC (kg) |
0.0 |
1.0 |
2.0 |
3.0 |
4.0 | ||
|
Number of animals |
8 |
8 |
8 |
8 |
71 | ||
|
Initial weight (kg) |
182±31 |
183±18 |
183±24 |
183±211 |
183±20 | ||
|
Final weight (kg) |
205±36 |
237±27 |
242±35 |
258±18 |
262±13 | ||
|
Daily gain (g) |
250±73 |
600±151 |
655±141 |
845±233 |
883±268 | ||
|
Dry-matter intake (% of liveweight) | |||||||
|
|
- straw2 |
2.6 |
2.5 |
2.1 |
1.9 |
1.3 | |
|
|
- CSC |
0.0 |
0.4 |
0.8 |
1.2 |
1.6 | |
|
|
- total |
2.6 |
2.9 |
2.9 |
3.1 |
2.9 | |
|
Feed conversion rate3 |
20 |
10 |
10 |
8.0 |
7.0 | ||
|
Hebei | |||||||
|
CSC (kg) |
0.0 |
0.25 |
0.5 |
1.5 |
2.0 |
2.5 | |
|
Number of animals |
10 |
10 |
10 |
10 |
10 |
10 | |
|
Initial weight (kg) |
137±23 |
159±18 |
183±42 |
192±43 |
175±33 |
194±50 | |
|
Final weight (kg) |
143±21 |
193±22 |
231±44 |
263±47 |
250±41 |
274±50 | |
|
Daily gain (g) |
63±48 |
370±133 |
529±150 |
781±165 |
829±165 |
892±76 | |
|
Dry-matter intake4 (% of liveweight) | |||||||
|
|
- straw |
2.7 |
2.5 |
2.3 |
2.0 |
1.8 |
1.7 |
|
|
- CSC |
0.0 |
0.1 |
0.2 |
0.5 |
0.8 |
0.9 |
|
|
- total |
2.7 |
2.6 |
2.5 |
2.5 |
2.6 |
2.6 |
|
Feed conversion rate |
60 |
12 |
10 |
7.0 |
7.0 |
7.0 | |
1 One sick animal was excluded from the calculations.
2 Straw was aerated one day prior to feeding. Dry matter was 82 percent.
3 Units of dry matter consumed to produce one liveweight unit
4 88 percent dry matter in the straw and the cottonseed cake The straw was treated with anhydrous ammonia. Measurements were taken the last ten days of the trial
3 - Summary of on-farm demonstration trial data - Résumé des données des essais de démonstration dans les exploitations - Resumen de los datos de los ensayos de demostración en explotaciones
|
County |
Start1 |
Farmers |
Cattle |
Villages |
Daily gain2 |
|
Huaiyang |
Sept. 1991 |
96 |
340 |
3 |
608±198 |
|
Shanshui |
July 1991 |
85 |
255 |
2 |
620±703 |
|
Baixiang |
Jan. 1992 |
83 |
250 |
3 |
713±90 |
|
Dingxing |
Oct. 1991 |
48 |
182 |
4 |
628±85 |
1 Periods during which weight records were taken varied from county to county. In Huaiyang, weights were recorded from September 1991 to January 1992 for 190 animals and from May to August 1992 for 69 animals. In Shanshui, recording started in July 1991 and continued until the animals were sold. In Baixiang, recording began in January 1992 for 220 animals and in March 1992 for 30 animals and went on until October 1992. In Dingxing, recording started in October 1991 on 182 animals and continued either until they were sold or until July or August 1992, depending on the village involved.
2 Average daily gain = approximately 642 g.
3 Estimated from several interim calculations.
The Baixiang data involving 250 animals comprise average values over nine months for 220 cattle and seven months for 30 animals. The observation of a large number of animals over a long period of time results in the highly reliable data that are used to discuss fattening entry age and weight (Table 4).
It can be seen that the animals that were the heaviest by the end of the trial had also grown faster than the average (p<0.01). This was because they were 60 kg heavier at the start, however, and they did not show the best daily growth rates. An analysis of the data of the CSC response trial involving 60 animals in Baixiang (Table 7) led to the same conclusion. The ten animals with the best growth rates had the same initial weight as the whole group. They grew at 894 g/day, which was 25 percent more than the average (713 g/day) and 43 percent better than one-half of the animals, which grew below the mean (average 623 g/day).
The data strongly suggest that nutrition, and not breed, is the first constraint to be addressed. Moreover, the results show that the local yellow cattle can perform at least as well as the cross-bred animals, with proper nutrition. The Baixiang CSC response trial included five Chinese yellow cattle x Shorthorn female cross-breds. There were only two females in each group (20 percent) in the trial. While these cross-breds grew on average 23 percent better than their respective group averages, they were not the fastest-growing animals. In the Baixiang village demonstration trial, the ten best animals, which grew at an average of 894 g/day, were 25 percent better than the average of 713 g/day for 250 animals (Table 4).
4 - Relationship between daily gain and initial and final weights of different animal groups - Rapport entre le gain quotidien et le poids initial et final pour différents groupes d'animaux - Relación entre el aumento diario de peso y el peso inicial y final en distintos grupos de animales
|
Group |
Daily gain |
Weight | |
|
|
|
Initial |
Final |
|
All animals |
713±90 |
174 |
368 |
|
Best 10 |
894±49 |
173 |
418 |
|
Heaviest 10 |
804±100 |
234 |
453* |
* The ten heaviest animals at the end of the trial.
5 - Degradation rates of treated and untreated wheat straw - Dégradabilité de la paille de blé traitée et non traitée - Tasa de degradación de la paja de trigo tratada y no tratada
|
Item |
Incubation period (hours) | |||||
|
|
8 |
16 |
24 |
48 |
72 |
96 |
|
|
(percentage) | |||||
|
Untreated straw |
14.1 |
19.1 |
25.3 |
38.4 |
40.6 |
45.0 |
|
5% urea-treated straw |
22.8 |
30.2 |
39.6 |
465 |
56.5 |
59.9 |
|
3% anhydrous ammonia-treated straw |
30.0 |
37.6 |
49.1 |
54.5 |
64.3 |
68.5 |
Source: Li and Gu, unpublished data.
6 - Comparison of anhydrous ammonia and urea as sources of ammonia - Comparaison entre l'ammoniac anhydre et l'urée comme sources d'ammoniac - Comparación del amoniaco anhidro y la urea como fuentes de amoníaco
|
3% anhydrous ammonia |
5% urea | |
|
Number of animals |
8 |
8 |
|
Initial weight (kg) |
162+14 |
162±15 |
|
1.5 kg cottonseed cake (CSC) | ||
|
Daily gain (g) 42 days |
360+90 |
333±70 |
|
2.5 kg cottonseed cake (CSC) | ||
|
Daily gain (g) 48 days |
510±80 |
470±90 |
|
Average daily gain (g) 90 days |
440 |
406 |
The conclusion is that the most uncomplicated and relevant breeding programme would be that which identifies young bulls with above-average growth rates and uses them for natural service in the villages. The project has demonstrated that, by using locally available weighing scales, regular weighing at village level can be an inexpensive management tool.
A trial was set up to study whether the well-established theoretical superiority of anhydrous ammonia (Sundstøl and Owen, 1984), which was also seen in the biological evaluation (using the nylon bag technique), was of practical significance in terms of increased daily liveweight gain. The results are summarized in Table 5. The values shown in the Table are typical for the respective materials. However, with the higher rate and extent of degradation of the 3 percent anhydrous ammonia-treated straw, it is expected that the animals will grow faster on this type of straw.
The results of a feeding trial comparing the two treatment methods are presented in Table 6. The trial showed an 8 percent superiority of anhydrous ammoniation, but much more significant responses of 41 percent and 42 percent in each group were shown when the level of CSC supplementation was raised from 1.5 kg to 2.5 kg/day, indicating that supplementation is a more important topic to address than source of ammonia. The daily liveweight gain data and the response to the extra kilogram of CSC were consistent, while the comparatively low liveweight gains were consistent with the performance of cattle on the particular farm where the experiment was conducted.
One critical element in allowing the higher digestibility of the anhydrous ammonia-treated straw to express itself in superior animal performance is ad lib feeding. Whether this principle was adhered to adequately is not completely clear from the trial data; however, it is interesting to look at data generated in the preceding TCP project (Ørskov, 1990) and in the present project (Table 7). In both projects, feeding trials were conducted with 5 percent urea- and 3 percent anhydrous ammonia-treated straw. The animals fed 3 percent anhydrous ammonia-treated straw tended to consume less, yet their average daily gain was similar or better than that of the other group, indicating that the higher digestibility of the anhydrous ammonia material satisfied the animals' appetite at a lower level of intake.
7 - Treated straw intake for each supplement level - Consommation de paille traitée pour chaque niveau de complémentation - Consumo de paja tratada para cada nivel de suplementación
|
Supplement level |
Anhydrous ammonia |
Urea |
|
0 |
2.7 |
2.6 |
|
0.25 |
2.5 |
- |
|
0.50 |
2.3 |
- |
|
1.0 |
2.0 |
2.5 |
|
1.5 |
1.8 |
- |
|
2.0 |
- |
2.1 |
|
2.5 |
1.7 |
- |
|
3.0 |
- |
1.9 |
|
4.0 |
- |
1.3 |
8 - Growth rate data used in the economic analysis - Données relatives au taux de croissance utilisées dans l'analyse économique - Datos de la tasa de crecimiento utilizados en el análisis económico
|
Henan (Urea) |
Hebei (Anhydrous ammonia) | ||||
|
Cottonseed cake (CSC) level (X) |
Daily gain |
Cottonseed cake (CSC) level |
Daily gain | ||
|
|
Actual |
Calculated (Y) |
|
Actual |
Calculated |
|
0 |
250 |
236 |
0 |
63 |
135 |
|
1 |
600 |
639 |
0.25 |
370 |
319 |
|
2 |
655 |
786 |
0.5 |
529 |
463 |
|
3 |
845 |
841 |
1.0 |
- |
663 |
|
4 |
883 |
861 |
1.5 |
781 |
783 |
|
2.0 |
829 |
857 | |||
|
2.5 |
892 |
901 | |||
|
Regression equation: |
Regression equation: | ||||
Nevertheless, adoption of the ammoniation technology has been much faster in the two counties of Huaiyang and Shanshui, which from the beginning promoted the urea-ammoniation technology (Table 3) mainly because it suit small farmers' scale of operation much better.
The anhydrous ammonia technique is likely to have advantages on large farms, where delivery conditions from both an institutional and infrastructural perspective are in place. Until such time as these delivery requirements are met in the villages, it appears more appropriate to promote the urea technique for small farmers as it allows them to buy urea in the market when it suits them and take it home, whether the road is dry, muddy or only a path. Some farmers mentioned that they had used urea-ammonia to preserve straw after a rainfall. An anhydrous ammonia delivery system has to be extremely flexible to respond to such requirements. It must be mentioned, however, that in areas of China it is so cold that the urea method is unlikely to work as satisfactorily during winter as in summer. Here, other techniques may be needed such as the introduction of anhydrous ammonia or the treatment of large quantities of straw with urea in the summer or autumn.
9 - Main financial parameters in the project areas - Principaux paramètres financiers dans les zones du projet - Principales parámetros financieros en las zonas del proyecto
|
Parameter |
Henan |
Hebei | ||
|
|
Urea |
Anhydrous ammonia |
Urea | |
|
(yuan renminbi/kg) | ||||
|
Cattle purchase price |
3.60 |
3.60 |
3.60 | |
|
Cattle sale price |
3.80 |
3.60 |
3.60 | |
|
Straw value |
0.0 |
0.0 |
0.06 | |
|
Urea price |
1.1 |
- |
1.1 | |
|
Anhydrous ammonia price |
- |
1.2 |
- | |
|
Cottonseed cake (CSC) | ||||
|
|
- normal price |
0.40 |
0.40 |
0.40 |
|
|
- scarce price |
0.60 |
0.60 |
0.60 |
|
Price of plastic |
8 |
8 |
8 | |
Note: Y5.5 = US$1 (November 1994).
Most farmers intuitively grasp potentially profitable activities quickly, and Chinese farmers are no exception. Many try new techniques that appear attractive even without the benefit of scientific refinement. In fact, this technology has been used in central China since 1985. Since the application was not guided by locally applied research, however, implementation by farmers has tended to be somewhat haphazard, even though profitable. In addition, recommendations by Chinese technicians were based on outmoded livestock-feeding technology and with little regard for economic considerations, especially the concept of input optimization for maximum profit.
It is not possible to determine the most profitable input level - or combination of inputs in the case of several animal feeds - and make recommendations to farmers based on physical input:output responses alone. Yet the physical data are very necessary as the basis for the economic calculations upon which sound, profitable recommendations can be made. It follows that the more reliable and consistent the physical response function, the more precise the economic analysis results will be and hence the husbandry recommendations arising from these.
Figures 1 and 2 show the actual data and the calculated response curves for each trial. Because the actual growth rate at 2 kg/day of CSC in Henan (655 g/day) was apparently inconsistent with the general trend, it was omitted from the data series used to determine the regression (Finlayson, 1993). The calculated figures were used to determine the input optimization/profitability response data. Table 8 sets out the relevant data for each location.
1 - Cattle growth rates in Henan - Taux de croissance des bovins dans le Henan - Tasa de crecimiento del ganado vacuno en Henan
2 - Cattle growth rates in Hebei - Taux de croissance des bovins dans le Hebei - Tasa de crecimiento del ganado vacuno en Hebei
3 - Profit per head in Henan - Profit par tête de bétail dans le Henan - Beneficios por cabeza en Henan
10 - Effect of supplement level on financial performance of urea-treated straw in Henan - Effet du niveau de complémentation sur les résultats financiers de la paille traitée à l'urée dans le Henan - Efecto del nivel de administración de suplementos de paja tratada con urea sobre el rendimiento financiero
|
Item |
Unit |
Supplement level (kg/day) | ||||
|
|
|
0 |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
|
Daily gain |
g/day |
236 |
639 |
786 |
841 |
861 |
|
Gross income |
Y/head |
1 710 |
1 710 |
1 710 |
1 710 |
1 710 |
|
Total costs |
Y/head |
1 620 |
1 154 |
1 176 |
1 259 |
1 338 |
|
Feed costs* |
Y/head |
663 |
386 |
428 |
517 |
598 |
|
Profit per head* |
Y |
90 |
556 |
534 |
451 |
282 |
|
Profit per day* |
Y |
0.08 |
1.31 |
1.56 |
1.40 |
0.90 |
|
Break-even gain |
g/day |
144 |
218 |
300 |
394 |
530 |
|
Break-even cottonseed cake (CSC) |
Y/kg |
- |
1.71 |
1.18 |
0.87 |
0.62 |
|
Fattening period |
months |
38 |
14 |
11.4 |
10.7 |
10.4 |
|
Profit per head+ |
Y |
90 |
471 |
397 |
258 |
32 |
|
Profit per day+ |
Y |
0.08 |
1.11 |
1.16 |
0.80 |
0.10 |
Note: Y5.5 = US$1 (November 1994).
*Cottonseed cake (CSC) = Y0.40/kg.
+Cottonseed cake (CSC) = Y0.60/kg.
11 - Straw utilization factors in China and Bangladesh Facteurs d'utilisation de la paille en Chine et au Bangladesh Factores de utilización de paja en China y Bangladesh
|
Factors |
China |
Bangladesh |
|
National perspective |
Yes |
Yes |
|
Farmer perspective |
Yes |
No |
|
Urea |
Yes |
Yes |
|
Protein supplements |
Cheap |
Available |
|
Access to land |
Even |
Uneven |
|
Sharecropping |
No |
Yes |
|
Price of straw |
Low |
High |
|
Straw used as fuel |
No |
Yes |
|
Tillage power |
Tractors |
Cattle |
|
Management decisions |
On-farm |
Off-farm |
|
Absentee landlords |
No |
Yes |
|
Political and administrative support |
Yes |
No |
|
Training of scientists |
No |
Yes |
|
Socio-economic factors |
Yes |
No |
Source: Dolberg, 1992.
The analysis results are presented for each province in the form of tables and graphs. The main variable financial parameters used in the calculations for each area and system are set out in Table 9. In addition, the costs of shedding, health and the container or plastic sheeting used for treatment are included.
The profitability analysis is based on an initial weight of 180 kg and a constant sale weight of 450 kg for all levels of supplement. It is also assumed that the cattle maintain uniform growth rates throughout. Table 10 summarizes the financial performance of the cattle-fattening activity in the central plains environment, using the Henan trial data only to demonstrate the methodology. It should be noted that in some areas sale and purchase price (per kilogram liveweight) of cattle are not the same. Urea is at market price, not at the concessional government price, while straw values may differ depending on the proximity to a paper factory or an interfarm straw market. Farm labour is not included because it is generally agreed that this input is offset by the manure value - approximately Y60 a head.
Because of the periodic seasonal scarcity of CSC, profit was calculated at two price levels representing normal (Y0.40/kg) and scarce (Y0.60/kg) supply situations. Some parts of Hebei Province recently suffered high prices as a result of low cotton production. In addition, profit was determined per head for the duration of the fattening period, as well as per day. The 'break-even' daily gain is the growth rate required to cover variable, mainly feed, costs. Break-even CSC price is that which would result in zero profit. Total costs include the purchase price of the cattle.
The graphical presentation of the key results in Figure 3 allows a better appreciation of the effect of a range of supplement levels on profit in different economic environments. The main factor affecting the shape of the profit curves is the production function in each trial, especially the 'zero' treatment, where growth rates were markedly different. Maximum profit per day and per head occur at different supplement levels.
The extraordinary uptake of treated crop residues in the cereal/cotton-growing areas of the central plains in China is the result of several favourable coinciding factors:
· In the present economic environment in this region where there are abundant crop residues and CSC, the technology is quite profitable mainly because the raw materials are cheap.· The technology is easy to learn and manage within the limited resources of the smallholder farmers who produce most of the feed material, requiring only the purchase of the ammonia source.
· There is strong government support for the technology because not only does it help raise the farmers' incomes, but it also lessens environmental pollution by reducing the traditional crop residue burning after harvest and enables lower consumption of feedgrains, while at the same time increasing meat output using hitherto poor forage resources. This support takes the form of trained technical assistance at the village level, ready availability of credit at concessional interest rates (0.7 percent per month) through the Agricultural Bank and assured supplies of urea (200 000 tonnes in 1992 at subsidized rates).
Important factors contributing to uptake are summarized in Table 11.
Concerning the availability of straw, it is the farmers' perspective that needs to be applied, including consideration of such factors as farm size, present straw use and possible alternatives, season, cropping pattern and type of animal production (work, milk, fattening, dry season feeding and growth). It is particularly important to find out whether - from the farmers' perspective - straw is plentiful or scarce. Before small-scale farmers will be prepared to invest in new technologies however, in many countries they will have to be assured of their rights to the land they cultivate.
It was the immediate objective of the project to evolve a technically suited long-cycle beef production system based on the use of treated crop residues as the main feed. To meet this objective, 312 village households, located in 12 villages, have fattened 1027 head of cattle in a series of on-farm demonstration trials. In addition, observations have been made on a number of calves.
On the basis of data generated by the project, it may be concluded that with treated crop residues as basal diet and a supplement of 1.5±0.5 kg CSC, daily growth rates between 600 and 700 g can be achieved and a 450 kg slaughter weight reached before the animal is two years old. With good management and careful selection of fattening animal, daily growth rates of 750 to 800 g on the same type of feed are realistic possibilities. Careful monitoring of the input costs, particularly of protein supplement, is necessary to determine the rate of optimum profitability, since these parameters vary, and to recognize the break-even price of the supplement at which there is no profit.
The development objective of the project was to reduce the competition for concentrate feed among different livestock species by delivering a livestock feeding strategy that would improve the efficiency of roughage and concentrate use at the national level, as well as encourage livestock production by small family farm units in cropping areas as a sideline activity, making optimum use of such locally available resources as labour, feedstuff and livestock.
The project has clearly met this objective. It has demonstrated that small farmers can produce beef using their own labour, local cattle, crop residues and CSC. No grain is required directly in the system, although the degree of indirect competition caused by the application of ammonia to straw rather than crops warrants economic analysis.
Uptake of the technology has been rapid. The planned project output of 3 000 tonnes of treated straw was exceeded by an estimated 150 000 tonnes, or more than 4 000 percent, in the project counties in 1992. Practically all treatment is by the urea method. The technology is finding popularity all over China as it increases beef production considerably and also reduces the importance of grain in meat production. As a result of the technology, the region has already been transformed into the main beef production region in the country, surpassing Mongolia (Guo Tinshuang, Yang Zhanhai and Zhang Zhishan, 1993).
Devendra, C. 1991. "Technologies currently used for the improvement of straw utilization in ruminant feeding systems in Asia", p. 1-19. Paper presented at the Workshop on the Utilisation of Straw in Ruminant Production Systems, Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute, Kuala Lumpur, 7-11 Oct. 1991.
Dolberg, F. 1992. Progress in the utilization of urea-ammonia treated crop residues: biological and socio-economic aspects of animal production and application of the technology on small farms. Livestock Res. Rural Dev., 4(2): 20-32.
Dolberg, F., Saadullah, M., Haque, M. & Ahmed, R. 1981. Storage of urea-treated straw using indigenous material. Wld Anim. Rev., 38: 37-41.
Doyle, P.T., Devendra, C. & Pearce, G.R. 1986. Rice straw as a feed for ruminants. International Development Program of Australian Universities and Colleges Ltd. 117 pp.
Finlayson, P.M. 1993. Economic aspects of utilising fibrous residues for beef production in China. In Guo Tingshuang, ed. Increasing livestock production through utilisation of local resources, p. 485-493. Proceedings of an international conference on animal production with local resources, 18-22 Oct. 1993. Beijing, China, Bureau of Animal Production and Health, Ministry of Agriculture.
Guo Tingshuang, Yang Zhanhai & Zhang Zhishan. 1993. New base of ruminant production in China - cropping areas. In Guo Tingshuang, ed. Increasing livestock production through utilisation of local resources, p. 5-13. Proceedings of an international conference on animal production with local resources, 18-22 Oct. 1993. Beijing, China, Bureau of Animal Production and Health, Ministry of Agriculture.
Han, I.H. & Garrett, W.N. 1986. Improving the dry matter digestibility and voluntary intake of low quality roughages by various treatments: a review. Korean J. Anim. Sci., 28: 199-236.
Jackson, M.G. 1978. Treating straw for animal feeding. Animal Production and Health Paper No. 10. Rome, FAO. 68 pp.
Ørskov, E.R. 1990. "Utilization of agricultural residues in animal feeding in Hebei and Henan Provinces in People's Republic of China", 10-30 April 1990. Mission report TCP/CPR/8858. Rome, FAO. 17 pp.
Owen, E. & Jayasuriya, M.C.N. 1989. Use of crop residues as animal feeds in developing countries - a review. Res. Dev. Agric., 6(3): 124-138.
Preston, T.R. & Leng, R.A. 1987. Matching ruminant production systems with available resources in the Tropics and sub-Tropics. Armidale, Australia, Penambul Books. 245 pp.
Saadullah, M. 1984 Supplementing ammoniated rice straw for native cattle in Bangladesh. Copenhagen, Denmark, Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University, Institute of Animal Science. 136 pp. (Ph.D. thesis)
Sundstøl, F. & Owen, E. 1984. Straw and other fibrous by-products as feed. Amsterdam, the Netherlands, Elsevier Science Publishers B.V. 604 pp.
Development and dissemination of appropriate technologies
The FAO Feed Resources Group has been very active in this field in recent years. With the help of qualified consultants, scientists and small farmers, new technologies and feeding systems have been generated and disseminated in developing countries. This is the case, for example, with the following:
· A new technology for multinutrient blocks (initially based on molasses and urea) has been developed using simple equipment. Blocks are also being manufactured without molasses where there is no sugar industry. About 60 countries are now manufacturing blocks at various levels.· Urea ammonia straw treatment (initially developed in Bangladesh with Danish bilateral assistance) has been adapted to local conditions in more than 30 countries and is at present widely disseminated, especially in China, where more than 3 million farmers treated their straw in 1993.
· Sugar-cane juice as the basal diet for pigs was first tested in an FAO project in the Dominican Republic, and then in several countries of the tropical Americas. It is now disseminated in about ten countries of this region and in Asia.
· Use of fodder trees as a protein supplement for ruminants fed on natural pasture or on crop residues. Although traditional, this use is being improved through studies initiated in Indonesia, Sri Lanka and Thailand.
More recently, work has been initiated on:
· making fish waste-molasses silage, as a simple and cheap way of preserving a valuable source of protein for monogastric and ruminant animals; a technology originally tried by institutions in Latin America and the Caribbean, more recently it has been tested in Morocco, the Philippines and Viet Nam;· using certain fodder tree leaves as a means of protecting proteins in the diet of ruminants, and possibly as a defaunation agent for reducing the protozoan population in the rumen, in collaboration with Australian and Brazilian universities or institutions;
· using palm oil as a source of energy for pig production, initially tested in Malaysia and more recently in Colombia and Benin;
· integrating livestock with plantation crops, allowing animals to reduce the cost of weeding and improve the recycling of nutrients while generating extra income from meat and milk.
Most of these technologies are described in this issue of World Animal Review.
One of the most important factors is the development of feeding systems based on feeds produced, processed and used on the farm. The need for external inputs and cash flow is thus reduced to a minimum, while employment is generated and the recycling of wastes is facilitated.
Field programme networks and projects
No technology is worthwhile if it is not applicable. After sufficient on-farm testing, it is necessary to apply anew technology on a large scale in order to reach the maximum number of farmers. For this purpose, different means such as research, training and extension activities exist.
At present the Feed Resources Group supports three networks:
· a network for the better use of straw through ammonia/urea treatment and supplementation in the Mediterranean basin (Algeria, Egypt, Jordan, Morocco, the Syrian Arab Republic and Tunisia);· an information network on the use of sugar cane and other locally available resources for animal feeding in the tropical Americas and the Caribbean region (24 countries);
· the Asian network on better use of local feed resources for sustainable livestock-based agriculture (Cambodia, China, Laos, the Philippines and Viet Nam).
A global network for the dissemination of information on tropical feeds and feeding systems using computerized documents and electronic mail is in preparation.
Projects are also essential to assist developing countries in helping small farmers. Constraints must first be identified, followed by on-station and on-farm testing. The FAO Technical Cooperation Programme has been very instrumental in this respect, particularly in solving problems that present a certain element of emergency. After this essential period of validation and necessary adjustments, the technology and feeding system can be extended on a wider scale. Finally, it may be necessary to seek the assistance of development banks, such as the World Bank or the various regional development banks, to fund projects at the national level.
This sequence of events comes close to the actual procedure that has been followed, for example, in projects in China and also in the Niger, as described in the articles by Sourabie, Kayouli and Dalibard (p.2) and Dolberg and Finlayson (p. 14) in this issue.
