PART II
MAIN PAPERS

STATUS OF SHRIMP PRODUCTION IN INDONESIA

Untung Wahyono
Directorate for Production
Directorate General of Fisheries, Jakarta

ABSTRACT

The extensification and intensification of tambak have together resulted in the rapid increase of shrimp production from only 27,600 tons in 1983 to 82,573 tons in 1988, or an average increase of 24.5 per cent per year. Shrimp production from capture fisheries has shown an increase of 6.0 per cent per year during the same period. The export of shrimps increased from 26,166 tons with a value of US$ 194.447 million in 1983 to 56,522 tons with a value of US$ 499.841 million in 1988 or an increase of 16.9 per cent per year by volume and 22.1 per cent by value. In 1982 Indonesia was the third largest exporter in the world but went down to fourth largest in 1987 after China, India and Denmark. Up to now the largest portion of Indonesian shrimp export goes to Japan. Although Indonesian shrimp supply to the USA is relatively small, still each year it has increased quite rapidly at an average rate of 16.99 per cent per year. At the end of PELITA V it is hoped that the marine product export will reach 305,850 tons with a value of US$ 1,178.2 million and it is hoped also that 81.1 per cent will come from shrimps.

1. INTRODUCTION

Shrimp which is considered as the “primadona” commodity in the fisheries subsector is hoped to increase its role in national income generation. This is due to the fact that shrimp which makes up a greater part of the fisheries product export has a large potential for development both from the market demand overseas which still shows a trend to increase, as well as from the available resource in Indonesia.

The production of shrimps in Indonesia comes from two sources, that is capture and culture fisheries. During the 1975–1980 period, the increase in shrimp production in Indonesia was fairly high. During the said period, a larger portion was produced by marine capture fisheries. But with the promulgation of Presidential Decree (KEPPRES) No. 39 in 1980 which banned the use of trawl in Indonesian waters, the production dropped drastically by 1982. This resulted in the decrease of fisheries product export which in the most part consisted of shrimps. Because of this, the government did its utmost to increase shrimp production through extensification as well as intensification of tambak, by pushing the private sector to invest in shrimp pond culture. In order to support tambak development, the development and rehabilitation of tambak canals was initiated with foreign assistance, including among others the Asian Development Bank (ADB) and the World Bank.

With the said government initiative, during PELITA IV shrimp production from tambak as well as export increased rapidly. Furthermore, private sector investment in shrimp growing also took off by itself, as did all other activities associated with it such as hatchery, feed manufacture, pesticide sales, cold storage and supply of various tambak equipment.

2. SHRIMP PRODUCTION SITUATION

The development of the fisheries subsector during PELITA IV already showed very encouraging results. This can be seen in the constant increase in fisheries production which at the same time has increased export and fish consumption, increased the income of fishermen and fish farmers, expanded job opportunities and supported regional development.

Fisheries production increased at an average of 4.8 per cent per year, from 2.21 million tons in 1983 to 2.67 million tons in 1987. Per capita fish consumption has increased at an average of 2.3 per cent per year, from 13.7 to 15.1 kg per year. By category, marine fisheries production increased by 4.7 per cent per year, and inland fisheries by 5.2 per cent per year. From inland fisheries, production from public waters increased only by 1.0 per cent per year, freshwater aquaculture by 8.6 per cent and from brackishwater aquaculture by 9.0 per cent per year. (Table 1)

In brackishwater aquaculture, shrimp production experienced the most rapid increase from 27,100 tons to 52,100 tons or an increase of 17.4 per cent per year. (Table 2)

The area for aquaculture as a whole increased by 1.7 per cent per year during the 1983–1987 period. However in tambak aquaculture, the development has been sufficiently high at 4.5 per cent per year. If the expansion of production and area developed for aquaculture in general are considered, it can be seen that aquaculture productivity has increased. Tambak aquaculture specially, experienced a 4.7% per year growth in its average productivity from 608 kg/ha/year in 1983 to 730 kg/ha/year in 1987.

As already mentioned earlier, shrimp production in Indonesia comes from capture and aquaculture activities. From capture fisheries shrimp experienced an average growth of only 6.0 per cent per year during the 1983–1987 period. Whereas aquaculture increased by an average of 21.3 per cent per year. The contribution of cultured shrimps to total shrimp production also increased. Tambak shrimp production in 1983 was 27,600 tons or 18.4 per cent of total production. By 1987 this increased to 59,700 tons or 27.8 per cent of total shrimp production (Table 3). This is hoped to increase further during REPELITA V.

3. THE ROLE OF SHRIMPS IN INDONESIAN EXPORT

Export of fisheries commodity in the 1983 to 1987 period increased by an average of 14.1 per cent per year by volume from 88,365 tons to 140,390 tons, and by value from US$ 257.1 million to US$ 475.2 million. Shrimp export on the other hand which in 1987 reached 44,270 tons with a value of US$352.4 million represents 31.5 per cent by volume and 74.2 per cent by value of total fisheries export. (Table 4)

The majority of shrimps traded in the world market are in frozen and headless forms. Assuming that 90% of the shrimps marketed where in frozen-headless form and the remaining 10 per cent head-on, in the year 1982 world export of shrimps was as much as 687,983 tons head-on or 39.47 per cent of the total increasing in 1986 to 1,066 million tons on 53.03 per cent of total.

The above-mentioned fact points out that Indonesia has good potentials to increase shrimp production and export. Indonesia possesses some comparative advantages, it has a large natural resource, a climate which allows year-round culture operation availability of grow-out and hatchery technology including back yardscale hatchery, abundant and relatively cheap labor when compared to other countries.

With the steps taken by the government so far, tambak shrimp production in 1983 to 1988 increased rapidly from 27,600 tons to 82,573 tons or an average increase of 24.5 per cent per year, such that the total shrimp production of Indonesia including those from capture fisheries during the same period increased from 149,800 tons to 236,255 tons or an average increase of 9.8 per cent per year. Furthermore based on data from the Central Statistics Bureau, during the same period, shrimp exports increased from 26,166 tons with a value of US$ 194,447 million in 1983 to 56,522 tons with a value of US$ 499,841 million in 1988 or an increase of 16.9 per cent per year by volume and 22.1% by value. (Table 6) During the January to February 1989 period, shrimp export reached 10,092 tons with a value of US$ 86,964 million or an increase of 51.01% by volume and 57.63% by value.

As previously discussed, the volume of Indonesian shrimp export in 1982–1986 increased from 25,373 tons to 35,965 tons or an average of 9.33% per year and by value from US$ 180,651 million to US$ 284,239 million or an average increase of 13.3% per year. With such development, in 1982 the role of Indonesia shrimp export in the world market was 5.91 per cent by volume and 6.80 per cent by value; and in 1986 5.4 per cent by volume and 6.70 per cent by value.

With the said development, in 1982, Indonesia was the third largest shrimp exporter in the world (after India and Mexico) and in 1986, the fourth largest (after China, India and Denmark). It is apparent that shrimp export from China during the 1982 – 1986 period developed rapidly, from 14,895 tons to 49,341 tons or an average increase of 46.1 per cent per year. Other countries with rapid annual increase in shrimp export are Greenland (22.81 per cent), Hongkong (23.47 per cent), Ecuador (19.41 per cent) and Denmark (13.80 per cent). Even with such development, Indonesian shrimp export still has bright prospects because India and Mexico which in 1982 were the first and second largest shrimp exporters in the world, are already on the decline as shrimp exporters with a-2.4% and -0.78 per cent growth respectively. (Table 5)

The increase of Indonesian shrimp export to Japan has already dislodged India from being the largest supplier in 1984 to only the third largest in 1988. In 1984, Indonesia was only the second largest supplier after India but became the largest supplier in 1988. Countries which compete with Indonesia in Japanese market aside from India are China, followed by Thailand and Taiwan. (Table 7)

At present, as shown in Table 8, USA, as the second largest shrimp importer, is being supplied by China (20.69%), Ecuador (20.65%), Mexico (12.60%), India (6.39%), Thailand (4.72%), Brazil (3.9%) and Taiwan (3.46%). China became the top exporter to the US only in 1988. During the 1984–1988 period Chinese shrimp exports to the US increased at an average of 141.6% per year. In contrast, Mexico which in 1984 was the top supplier, dropped to the third place in 1988. During the 1984–1988 period Mexican shrimp export to USA dropped by an average of 44% per year. Although Indonesian shrimp export to the USA is relatively small, it has however been increasing each year at an average of 41.00 per cent.

4. PROSPECTS AND DEVELOPMENT APPROACH

The growing interest in the shrimp industry, has pushed the private sector to invest in shrimp growing as well and its allied industries. As of this writing, more than 350 companies have been registered as having invested or intending to invest in shrimp production with some 25,900 ha already planned for development. At present, less than 4,000 ha has been realized. In general these companies intend to use advanced technology (intensive) with productivity levels of 5 tons/ha/year and up.

The increase of shrimp production and export cannot be dissociated from the supportive activities such as hatchery, feedmill and pond equipment fabrication/distribution. At this time, 92 private hatcheries are already in operation, with a total production capacity of 2.6 billion fry per year aside from 15 government hatcheries. In the area of shrimp feed, 19 factories are already producing or are intending to produce shrimp pellet in addition to several variety which are already being imported, specifically from Taiwan. Thus, other supportive industries such as water pump, paddle wheel and cold storage, at this time are all growing accordingly.

Under REPELITA V, it is hoped that the role of the fisheries subsector can be increased further, specially in terms of generating income from the export of shrimps and other commodities. The increase of the contribution of the fisheries subsector has a strong basis in view of the potential resource available which have not yet been exploited. Aside from this, the resources available include fish species which have competitive advantages in the international market.

Under REPELITA V fisheries production is projected to increase by as much as 5.87 per cent per year, so that by the end of REPELITA V, fisheries production will have reached 3.97 million tons (Table 9). Fisheries export is projected to increase 12.6 per cent per year by volume and 13.6% by value so that by the end of REPELITA V, fisheries export shall have reached 305,850 tons with a total value of US$ 1,178.2 million. From the total export, shrimp is expected to have the biggest contribution at 81.1% (Table 10)

Based on the available land resource, the development policy to be pursued will consist of intensification and extensification. Intensification will be pursued in regions where the tambak industry is already developed such as Aceh, Java, South Sulawesi and other similiar areas. On the other hand, extensification will be pursued in order to exploid new areas along with rainfed ricelands which have low productivity. Intensification is being pursued through the INTAM (Intensifikasi Tambak) programme which was launched in 1984/1985. As of this time the INTAM programme has been implemented in 11 provinces, namely: D.I. Aceh, Lampung, West Java, Central Java, East Java, South Kalimantan, East Kalimantan, South Sulawesi, Southeast Sulawesi, Bali and West Nusa Tenggara.

In order to support shrimp pond development, the government is developing the necessary infrastructure, either through the national budget or through foreign assistance. Such foreign assistance comes from the Asian Development Bank (ADB) for the Brackishwater Aquaculture Development Project (BADP) and the World Bank for the Fisheries Support Services Project (FSSP).

Phase I of BADP started in 1983/1984 and shall end by 1989/1990. Primary activities of this project are: 1) development/rehabilitation of tambak canal which is expected to supply water to 12,140 ha of tambak in West Java, Central Java and East Java; 2) development of 5 shrimp hatcheries each with a capacity of 40 million fry per year in West Java (1 unit), East Java (2 units), Aceh (1 unit) and South Sulawesi (1 unit); 3) extension and 4) credit.

The World Bank assisted FSSP on the other hand started only in 1987/1988 and shall end by 1994/1995. This project includes: 1) intensification of shrimp production in 18,000 ha of tambak (Aceh 5,000 ha, South Sulawesi 11,000 ha and Southeast Sulawesi 2,000 ha) which includes in its execution private companies which intend to operate as a nucleus company to provide inputs and technical guidance and at the same serve as a guarantor for 50% of bank loan to tambak farmers to be channeled through Bank Rakyat Indonesia (BRI). Under this project, the government will no longer build commercial facilities like hatcheries. Government activities will be limited to the development and rehabilitation of water supply canals, extension to the tambak farmers along with the establishment of blueprints for nucleus companies. In addition, this project shall also include the motorization of 26 units of pole and line fishing boats for skipjack fishing using the Nucleus Estate Concept (PIR) in Maumere, East Nusa Tenggara, and 3) Coastal Zone Pilot Component in the north coast of Central Java.

Phase II of the ADB-assisted BADP is concerned with the tambak extensification in Aceh, North Sumatra, Riau, South Kalimantan, East Kalimantan and West Nusa Tenggara. The activities of this project shall involve the private sector as nucleus and the tambak farmers as plasma using the Nucleus Estate Concept.

5. CONCLUSION

There is a lot of opportunity in the world market for the available fisheries resources of Indonesia. The opportunity to increase the production and export of shrimps and at the same time increase the market share in the world market is very good.

But then continuous effort to eliminate or at least reduce the existing obstacles is necessary and should be exerted by all parties concerned.

Success in increasing production and the share in the world market will depend largely on the capacity to compete with other exporting countries. Along this line there is a need to lower shrimp production costs as well as improve product quality through increased efficiency on the part of producers as well as exporters, or in short, more intensive efforts on all parties concerned.

Table 1. Fisheries production according to type of production activity, Indonesia, 1983 – 1987.

Table 2. Tambak area and production, Indonesia, 1983 – 1987.

Table 3. Shrimp production according to source, Indonesia, 1983 – 1987.

Table 4. Volume and value of fishery product export, Indonesia, 1983 – 1987.

Tabel 5. World shrimp export according to primary producing countries, 1982–1986.

Table 6. Volume of Indonesian shrimp export according to major countries of destination, 1983 – 1988.

Table 7. Shrimp exports to Japan by country or origin, 1984 – 1988.

Table 8. Shrimp exports to USA by country of origin, 1984 – 1988.

Sumber: GLOBEFISH AN 10017

Table 9. Fisheries production projection in REPELITA V, Indonesia.

Table 10. Fisheries product export projection in REPELITA V, Indonesia.

STATUS OF THE SHRIMP HATCHERY INDUSTRY IN INDONESIA

Made L. Nurdjana and Anindiastuti
Brackishwater Aquaculture Development Centre, Jepara, Central Java

ABSTRACT

The first shrimp hatchery in Indonesia was established in Paotere, Ujung Pandang, while the first private hatchery was established in Bandengan, Jepara after BBAP had succeeded in developing the eyestalk ablation technique. With the increasing demand for shrimp fry, the shrimp hatchery ventures developed rapidly. At this time there are already 100 units of shrimp hatchery although its distribution is still clumped around certain localities. A large majority of the hatcheries are constructed using a modification of the Japanese and Galveston systems. There are also two different systems of water management, these are the flowing water system and is known as the Hawaii system and the still water system that is better known as the Taiwan system. Aside from this the backyard-scale hatchery system is also starting to develop. The later requires a relatively low investment because its activity is limited only to larval rearing. In general shrimp hatchery operation can already be considered successful although several problems are still encountered often, these are among others: diseases, broodstock availability, natural food availability, skilled workers and market.

1. INTRODUCTION

As the “primadona” commodity, the contribution of shrimps in increasing the national income is not small. Shrimp grow-out ventures, both traditional and intensive have already been initiated by the government in various coastal areas. The rate of increase in tambak area development in Indonesia is estimated to be no more than 3.4% with a target for fiscal year 1988/1989 set at 258,000 ha inclusive of about 23,517 ha of intensive tambak areas (Anonymous, 1988).

Knowing that the stocking density in intensive tambaks ranges from 15 to 40 fry/m² and 5,000 to 10,000 fry/m² for traditional tambaks, it is possible to estimate the total number of fry that is required annually. If only natural shrimp fry can be relied upon, then only 10% of the requirement will be filled.

At this time many shrimp hatcheries are already existing, so that it is estimated that there are already more than 100 units in operation. A large majority of these hatcheries already use advanced technology. Tanks are made of concrete and are equipped with modern equipment. The advance in technology has brought hatchery development from the use of technology and inputs that are simple (tanks constructed of wood and lined with plastic) to hatcheries that are modern and this development is certainly going to result in increased production.

The hatcheries are apparently not yet evenly distributed in the archipelago, more are found in Java, East Aceh and South Sulawesi.

The encouragement given to (the development of) shrimps as the “primadona” non-oil commodity in the fisheries subsector and the development of many shrimp tambaks has, it seems, also encouraged the private sector to become interested in venturing into the hatchery business. Some shrimp hatcheries outside the island of Java are located in among other places, Aceh and Sulawesi.

Various methods of shrimp larviculture has already emerged among the hatcheries in Indonesia. These methods can however be classified into two: stagnant water and continuous flow methods. The stagnant water method is a technique of rearing larvae where water change is very minimal or none at all, if the condition of the rearing water does not require any changes, so that it looks quite turbid.

The continuous flow method is a technique of rearing shrimp larvae where the water is always clear because every day the water is changed (up to 50%). This method has now been made the primary standard by the East Javanese in ascertaining shrimp fry quality, and is known to them as Hawaii system.

Shrimp fry constitutes one production factor that determines the cost at the initial period of shrimp production and determines the quantity and quality at the end of the production period. Based on surveys, there is an indication that the larval rearing method in the hatchery exerts an influence in the biological condition and survival rate of the shrimp fry in the tambak. Shrimp fry with a high survival in the hatchery on the average will also have a high survival in the tambak, but will not necessarily have a high growth rate.

The development of a hatchery requires a very large investment reaching hundreds of million of Rupiah. This high cost limits the participation of the middle class who wishes to invest in a shrimp hatchery. In connection with this problem, BBAP Jepara has succeeded in developing backyard-scale shrimp hatchery technique.

The setting up of a backyard-scale hatchery requires only a relatively small capital. A simple unit, only requires the construction of two larval rearing tanks using concrete or wood lined with plastic with a volume between 6 to 15 tons and two one-ton algal culture tanks also made of either concrete or wood lined with plastic. Aside from this, in order to lower production costs, the hatchery technology has also been simplified.

This appropriate technology that has been developed by BBAP Jepara, in addition will serve as one alternative in lowering the operating costs for shrimp grow-out in tambak. With such alternative, it is expected that the tambak operators can still make profits even if the shrimp price drops sharply. The improvement and simplification of shrimp hatchery technology is one undertaking that can solve some problems which has lately been happening frequently in shrimp hatcheries.

2. HISTORY OF PENAEID SHRIMP HATCHERY DEVELOPMENT IN INDONESIA

When penaeid shrimp hatcheries began, two methods were known: the Japanese method and the Galveston method. The Japanese method was first developed by Fujinaga in 1942 with his success in rearing the larvae of Penaeus japonicus (Fujinaga and Kittaka, 1967). In the Japanese method, large tanks (20–200 tons) are used with the natural food (plankton) cultured directly in the larval tank. Natural gravid spawners used were collected from the sea. Based on the success of the Japanese method, experts in the United States also developed another method that is known as the Galveston method (Mock, 1974). The Galveston method is characterized by small tanks (1–2 tons) that are conical in shape. Natural food was cultured separately, while the species used were P. stylirostris and P. vannamei.

The development of penaeid shrimp hatchery in Indonesia started with a hatchery unit in Paotere, Ujung Pandang in 1971 using white shrimps (P. merguiensis). Broodstock of white shrimp can become gravid and can breed without any special treat ment. The larval rearing method used was the Japanese method so that the natural food was raised directly in the larval tanks. The Paotere hatchery was followed by BBAP hatchery which started to operate in 1974 and the Sluke hatchery in rembang which was built by the Provincial Fisheries Service of Central java. Aside from the white shrimps BBAP also started developing the udang windu (P. monodon). However the development of the shrimp hatchery was very slow due to the dependence on gravid spawners form the sea, increased trawl activities and the undeveloped state of shrimp grow-out in tambak. The success of eyestalk ablation in tiger shrimps in 1978 finally set the pace in the development of shrimp hatcheries in Indonesia. Success in eyestalk ablation is achieved by pinching and cleaning one eyestalk of the shrimp broodstock. Ovarian maturation was attained in a tank measuring 5× 8 ×2 m that was located in an open space (Nurdjana et al, 1979).

It should be noted that at that time, shrimp hatchery operation was a new activity, in order to stimulate private entrepreneurs to follow, it was necessary to make the investment costs low. To achieve the said objective, modifications were made according to the conditions of the said period. The larvae were reared in wooden tanks lined with plastic with capacity of about 6 tons. Natural food (plankton) were reared in a separate tank. The culture of natural food directly in the larval tank had been tried but always results in blooming to the great disadvantage of the larvae being reared.

With the success of the low-cost shrimp hatchery technique, the government built small-scale hatcheries as pilot projects in Situbondo, East Java and in Jepara, Central Java. The private sector finally became stimulated in joining shrimp hatchery development. The first private shrimp hatchery was PT Skalatama which was built in April 1979 in Bandengan, Jepara. This was followed by PT Mutiara Biru in Pasir Putih, Situbondo and PT Fajar Jaya in Central Java. After this no other hatcheries emerged until much later. This was attributed to the following reasons: a the technology was not yet steady; b. limited demand for shrimp fry because the tambak has not yet developed; c. the existing tambak farmers were not yet sure of the quality of shrimp fry produced by hatcheries.

However one interesting thing during that period was that in all the hatchery units, whether government-owned or private, not one used foreign technicians and all shrimp breeders used for eyestalk ablation came from tambak culture so that there was no dependency on shrimp broodstock from the sea.

Foreign technicians (from Taiwan) were first used in Indonesia by CV Langsung in Labuhan, West Java. Along with this was the beginning of the use of natural broodstock caught from the sea for eyestalk ablation. Up to this period, the shrimp fry demand was not yet stable and was limited, because the intensive tambak have not yet developed, resulting in the instability of shrimp hatchery operation.

In 1984 PT Matang Speng Raya was established in East Aceh. This company was the first to integrate shrimp hatchery with grow-out. At this time intensive grow-out was attempted. The integrated shrimp operation was expected to help in making the marketing of shrimp fry more steady. Along with this, in the district of Secanggang, Langkat Regency, Ki Hong also started to pioneer in intensive shrimp culture. This intensive tambak was the first one to prove that 7 ton/ha/crop can be attained in an Indonesian tambak.

Based on the said success of the intensive tambak operation in North Sumatra, other tambak operators in Sumatra as well as in Java and other places followed suit. As a result of the development of intensive tambak, the demand of shrimp fry also increased so that the rapid development of shrimp hatcheries followed. According to the latest data (Bulletin Warta Mina, Vol. VIII No. 13/1987) there are 88 units of shrimp hatcheries registered. These hatcheries use a variety of technologies, capacities and have varied production.

3. PRESENT STATUS OF SHRIMP HATCHERY

3.1 Distribution

As already mentioned previously, shrimp hatchery ventures developed rapidly. The number of shrimp hatcheries probably already exceeds 100 units. However, as seen in Table 1, it appears that these hatcheries are not distributed evenly in the entire Indonesia. It can be seen that the distribution of hatcheries are centered around some regions, these are Aceh, West Java, Central Java and South Sulawesi. The uneven distribution is ue to the fact that the larvae need good quality seawater during the entire rearing cycle, so that the shrimp hatcheries are centered around coastal areas with good quality water. As an example of this, in Central Java, the hatcheries can be found only in Bondo and Bandengan in Jepara as well as in Cilacap. In East Java, the coastal area from Pasir Putih to Banyuwangi serves as the centre. However there are some hatcheries built in coastal areas where the water is turbid such as Karawang. As a result of this, the said hatchery should have a large seawater reservoir, which means a higher investment cost.

Aside from technical factors, non-technical factors such as accessibility and land availability also add to the factors considered in selecting a site for a hatchery.

3.2 Design and Construction

Hatchery design at present has already gone through many modifications relative to the original methods. Modifications usually are introduced according to the condition of the site and the ability to finance it. In general there are two designs which up to now are still in use, these are the outdoor system and the indoor system. An outdoor system requires less capital but monitoring of the environment has to be more thorough because the natural factors still plays a big role. Investment for an indoor system is higher but there is better control of the environment.

As for construction of other components there is not much difference among the existing hatcheries. The said construction generally includes the following:

3.2.1 Broodstock/maturation tanks

To produce gravid spawners through eyestalk ablation technique, the primary requirement is the broodstock or maturation tanks. At present, hatcheries generally build concrete circular tanks with a diameter of around 6.0 m and depth of 1.0 m. Some hatcheries still use rectangular maturation tanks. In a rectangular tank, the shrimps often get into the corners so that their tendency is to jump and hit the concrete wall of the tank. This is the reason that its use results in a higher rate of injury to the shrimps when compared to that of a circular tank, and finally also hamper the rate of maturation.

3.2.2 Spawning/hatching tanks

The spawning/hatching tanks are generally made of fibreglass or cement. The tanks are slightly conical in shape with a diameter of less than 2 m and a depth of 1 m. These tanks are considered as part of the maturation facilities but are usually in a separate room. This is so that the activities connected with the hatching process or the transfer of nauplii do not disturb the maturation process of the broodstock.

3.2.3 Larval rearing tanks

Larval rearing tanks generally are built of cement with measurements varying between 10 to 30 tons. Very small tanks (2–3 tons) are economical only at very high densities, which means having to use a high technology method. The environment of the larval culture media is easily subjected to extreme fluctuation. Tanks with large capacities (30 tons) often encounters difficulties in nauplii availability because one operation requires a large number of nauplii. This is why not many shrimp hatcheries use small or big tanks.

Aside from rectangular tanks, some hatcheries also use tanks which are boat-shaped (Cholik, 1988). These tanks usually are made of fibreglass with a capacity of around 15–20 tons. Fibreglass tanks require a higher investment when compared to cement tanks.

Postlarval rearing tank in principle is the same as larval tank, so that not a few use the larval tank as postlarval tank at the same time. In hatcheries with separate postlarval tanks, in general these are built with capacities bigger than for larval tanks with some measuring around 100 tons.

3.2.4 Plankton culture tanks

Tanks for the mass culture of plankton has capacities of 0.5 to 10 tons depending upon the stages of plankton culture. To fill the requirements for larval rearing a total plankton culture tank capacity of 10–20% of the larval tank capacity is required. Small culture tanks are usually made of fibreglass and large ones of cement. Hatcheries conducting laboratory-scale cultures have an air conditioned laboratory along with bottles of 50 ml to 10 liter capacities.

3.2.5 Seawater supply system

In supplying seawater for hatchery activities, the physical structures used are fairly variable. However, as a first step a sand filter is used to improve the physical quality of the water. In sand filtration, there are those using a sand-filter tank but there are also those using the seabottom sand directly as a filter and is known as “giant filter”. Other filtration equipment such as D. E. filter are also often used in hatcheries.

In some hatcheries filtration is done only once especially if the water is sufficiently clear. In hatcheries that are better equipped or where the water condition is not clear enough, filtration is often done in stages using sand with different particle sizes. Aside from this to guard against the occurence of pathogenic organisms, some large hatcheries use ozonizer, ultraviolet rays or chemicals. Seawater after filtration are treated with ozone or with ultra-violet rays or with chemicals such as chlorine or formalin, before being used for hatchery activities. With such method it is hoped that pathogenic organisms which were not removed by the sand filter can be eliminated.

3.3 Method

Hatchery methods for the tiger shrimps at present has already undergone many modification when compared to its initial development. In principle, the methods used by most of the large hatcheries do not vary very much both for producing gravid spawners or larval rearing as well as for other activities. In general the hatchery activities include:

3.3.1 Production of gravid spawners

Since the success of eyestalk ablation technique, most of the spawner requirement have been filled using this method. Broodstock shrimps come either from the sea or from tambak culture. At this time, the use of broodstock material coming from tambaks is becoming rarer because of the difficulty in finding shrimps which comply with the size required for ablation.

The technique used most often in ablating the eyestalk is by pinching the eye with a hot pincer. With this method, apparently mortality due to infection can be prevented. In certain areas such as Eastern Aceh, the gravid spawner required can still be obtained from the sea because they can still be caught in sufficient quantity the whole year round.

In order to produce gravid spawners with the expected quality supporting factors which should be given attention are among others as follows:

1. Spawner quality
   For eyestalk ablation and mating the minimal size for female and male broodstock are 125 g and 80 g respectively all in good physical condition.
2. Feed
   Up to this time fresh feed is still the primary choice. Types of feed that are used varies depending upon their availability in each area such as squids, crabs, shells or seaworms.
3. Water quality management
   There are two methods used in managing the culture medium in the maturation tanks, these are using flowing water and changing of water from time to time that is everytime the ovarian development is being monitored.
4. Environmental conditions
   The environment for ovarian maturation process should be made as calm as possible. In order to achieve this, maturation tanks are now built indoor under dark conditions. Some hatcheries use partially transparent roofing over their maturation tanks, but during operations these can be darkened while in between operation sunlight can enter in order to sanitize the environment.

With the success of the eyestalk ablation technique along with the supportive factors, it is believed that there is no longer a problem in the technique for producing gravid spawners.

3.3.2 Spawning/hatching

The process of spawning and hatching actually does not necessarily need to be done in tanks that are separate from the larval tanks. However, even if so, it is better if spawning and hatching are done in separate tanks in order to avoid undesirable matters. The release of eggs, usually, is accompanied by ovarian tissues, which can make the water quality go down. It is here that the transfer of nauplii to a new medium is necessary. Aside from this, the transfer of nauplii also serves to exclude the unhatched eggs in the larval rearing tanks.

The hatching tank is very significant if washing of the eggs is done. If washing is done in the larval tank difficulties will be encountered in collecting the eggs. Hatching in a separate (smaller) tank is very helpful if at a certain time the eggs are washed as a way of preventing diseases.

3.3.3 Rearing of larvae and postlarvae

In general the larval rearing method that has evolved in Indonesia is a modification of the Japanese and Galveston method. The larvae are reared in an outdoor hatchery system from the nauplius stage up to harvest at postlarvae (PL) 15–20. Until now this method is still used but the majority now use indoor system. Larval rearing in an indoor system starts at nauplius stage up to PL 2–5, and are then transferred to postlarval tank outdoor until harvest. The rearing of postlarvae outdoor is aimed at adaptation of the postlarvae before stocking in the tambak.

There are two methods of water management being used, these are no water change and continuous water change. Both methods give satisfactory results, however in East Java there is a belief that shrimp fry coming from hatcheries using continuous flow water management system are better in quality. This method is often referred to Hawaii system in East Java. At BBAP Jepara, the following water system has actually already been used since 1982. The tambak farmers in East Java base their opinion on the fact that the shrimp fry from such system is already used to water change so that if these are transferred to the tambak they no longer suffer from stress. This is the reason why certain farmers favor such shrimp fry and are willing to pay a higher price with the hope that stocking mortality can be reduced to a minimum. It should be noted that the change in water quality inside the tank occurs very slowly and the water that is changed is only a certain part. With this method, the water quality of the culture medium is probably always good, but the shrimp fry is still certainly not yet used to abrupt environmental change. Therefore it should be noted that during stocking in the tambak proper acclimation is still necessary.

In other areas morever, the opposite situation exists since more farmers are happier with shrimp fry coming from hatcheries which do not change water. This opinion certainly can be accepted. The culture medium which is used continuously without changing the water clearly will become lower in quality because of accumulation of organic matter and toxic gases such as NH₃. If the fry can live in such a medium, this means the said fry has a good endurance capacity. When the fry are stocked in the tambak it is expected that they are capable to survive in the tambak environment where the water quality does not differ much from the culture medium in the hatchery tank. From this, actually it can be concluded that the quality of fry from the second method can give good results in the tambak. Only what should certainly be given attention is the need for adaptation during stocking in the tambak.

3.3.4 Live feed supply

In shrimp hatchery two types of natural feed are absolutely required and cannot yet be substituted by other types of feed. The two live feed are plankton which is given at zoea and mysis stage and Artemia which is given from mysis-2 to postlarvae. Plankton is supplied by culturing while Artemia up to this time is still imported.

a. Plankton culture

Up to this time the species that have been successfully used and are normally cultured in hatcheries are Tetraselmis, Skeletonema and Chaetoceros. Meanwhile Isochrysis and Spirulina are still in the development stage. At the initial stage of its development, Tetraselmis was the species most often used followed by Chaetoceros. However, at this time, the most dominant species used as larval food is Skeletonema.

Skeletonema is the popular choice because it is liked by shrimp larvae and its culture is relatively easy. In one day it can already be used. In addition Skeletonema can be harvested using plankton net so that contamination of the larval culture medium by the algal culture medium is reduced. Although Tetraselmis is also liked by shrimp larvae and is easy to culture, it cannot be harvested and requires about 5 days before it can be used.

In plankton culture, if done in its entirety, two steps are required: laboratory-scale culture and massscale culture. Laboratory-scale culture is intended to maintain algal purity and make starter cultures of algae available for mass culture continuously.

At this time, not all shrimp hatcheries are doing laboratoryscale culture because it requires special facilities which are fairly costly and needs more precise handling. For this the government institutes such as BBAP and its sub-centres along with other research institutes always have plankton starters available for all those who require such cultures.

Starter culture for mass culture is obtained from an algal laboratory or from another hatchery. Failures in mass culture are often due to contamination by other plankton or other live organisms. In order to minimize such failures, the seawater should first be treated with chlorine solution before being fertilized. Aside from this in order to assist in the success of the mass culture, the culture should be done outdoor so that there will be enough light.

The depth of the culture water is also set at a depth at which the light intensity can still penetrate up to the bottom of the tank. The aeration should be strong enough and evenly distributed in order to assist in making the fertilizer completely dissolved as well as to prevent the settling of plankton, especially for diatoms such as Skeletonema. The plankton is given to the larvae or is harvested once it reaches the peak in its growth. With that the maximum population is attained and the fertilizer concentration in the culture medium is at its minimum level.

b. Artemia

In most hatcheries Artemia nauplii are given starting at mysis-2 and hatching of the Artemia cysts is done using decapsulation, that is to remove the chorion layer by using hypochlorite solution. The use of decapsulation method has some advantages such as:

• Hypochlorite is a form of disinfectant and can prevent the occurence of pathogenic organisms that may brought into the larval rearing tank;
• increases the hatching rate of cysts;
• increases the nutritional value of the nauplii because the energy used during the hatching process is lower;
• the empty shell or chorion if brought into the larval tank is a good medium for the growth of parasites so that with its disapperance the medium for the growth of parasites which can attack the shrimp larvae is also expected to disappear.

3.4 Production

Shrimp fry production capacity differs from one hatchery to another according to the amount of investment. Furthermore the production attained is not always up to the maximum capacity. Based on survey results, the basic production trend of most hatcheries appears to be relatively similar. In addition to failures due to diseases, fry production is very much affected by the tambak requirement. During the time when many tambaks need fry, the hatcheries will also set their production target at the highest level. If the tambak requirement decreases, the hatchery production by itself also decreases. The peak of the rainy season normally serves as a resting period for shrimp hatcheries because the environment is not conducive to larval survival.

4. BACKYARD-SCALE SHRIMP HATCHERY

Although large-scale hatchery technology and operation has already been simplified, it still requires a large investment so that only the large entrepreneurs are able to engage in it. It was from this fact that the idea on how to enable the economically-disadvantaged to also enjoy the results of shrimp hatchery operation. Smallscale hatchery operation was pioneered by BBAP Jepara (Nurdjana et al, 1978 and 1980).

Experiments on a shrimp hatchery technology package were started in 1979 using wooden tanks lined with plastic sheets. From the technical side the said experiments were successful but when viewed from the economic side, it can be said that they were not successful. The failure in the development of this technology package in the community at large is due to the low demand for shrimp fry at that time, added to this was the fact that some farmers who obtained fry from the hatchery found them to be of poor quality.

During the last few years, the demand for shrimp fry increased sharply due to the advances in the application of intensive shrimp culture technology so that the opportunity to absorb fry production also increased. In addition the tambak farmers and operators no longer hold the opinion that shrimp fry from hatcheries are poor in quality. In late 1988 work on small-scale shrimp hatchery operation was revived. The results of the experiments appear to be accepted positively by the community especially in Jepara. In less than 6 months more than 50 units of the backyard-scale hatcheries were built in Jepara most of which are owned by the low-income group.

The backyard-scale shrimp hatchery can be built with a small capital because actually it involves only one link in the chain of activities involved in large-scale hatchery operation-that is larval rearing. Such smallscale operation is expected to be able to give the following benefits:

• Help to eliminate the difficulty of tambak farmers who always lack shrimp fry during stocking season.
• Make lower-cost shrimp fry available so as to increase the competitive advantage of Indonesian shrimp in the world market.
• Make the yard of the house productive and at the same time increase the income of the family especially those living along coastal area.
• Create employment.
• Support the national programme of increasing non-oil exports by making available one component required in shrimp culture production.
• Assist in making shrimp fry available to traditional tambak farmers by teaching them and giving them the opportunity to produce their own fry.

There are some criteria which limit the smallscale shrimp hatchery units, these are among others:

• As a sideline family enterprise to make use of the yard which becomes a business location while the family members become workers.
• The equipment that are used reflects the simplicity so that it gives the impression of being easy to follow both from the investment and operational side.
• In its operation the water change is very limited, so that it is possible that the water is not changed at all so that this technology can be applied even by communities who do not live along the coast.
• To conduct limited operational activities, for example rearing of larval from nauplius to PL-15/20 or from nauplius to PL-2 or from PL-2 to PL-15/20.
• The investment cost is relatively small so that it can be easily followed by the community.
• With the simplicity of its requirements, some of the production inputs such as gravid spawner, nauplius and algae still depend on other hatcheries.

The basic requirements in backyard-scale hatchery are as follows:

4.1 Larval Rearing Tanks

Some of backyard-scale hatcheries use tanks made from wood and lined with plastic with capacity of 5 to 10 tons. However those who have enough capital already use cement tanks with size ranging from 6 to 30 tons. Generally the tanks are rectangular in shape since these are easier to construct than round or oval tanks.

4.2 Artemia Hatching Tanks

Depending on the larval tank capacity, the Artemia hatching tank usually is fabricated by joining a plastic pail and a large funnel. Such combination forms a conical container with a volume of about 20 liters. This shape is very advantageous because one airstone is enough to agitate the cysts in the pail uniformly thus helping in the hatching process.

4.3 Plankton Culture Tanks

Not all backyard-scale hatcheries have plankton culture tanks. This is because during the 25-day rearing period only 8 days require plankton. Generally plankton is given only during the first two days of zoea stage. Afterwards the plankton will propagate by itself during the larval rearing period. This is the reason why some of the backyard-scale hatcheries are inclined to acquire plankton from large hatcheries, both government and private.

However not a few of the backyard-scale hatcheries are also equipped with their own plankton culture tanks so that they can culture their own plankton and do not have to depend upon the large hatcheries. The plankton tanks generally are made of cement with a volume between 0.5 to 1.0 ton and are about 10–20% of the larval tank capacity.

4.4 Field Equipment

The field equipment consist of basins for harvests, pails for dissolving the feeds and dippers. Screens for feed are also necessary in order to make the feed particles suitable to each larval stage. For zoea stage filter screen with 40 micron mesh is needed, for mysis stage 80 micron and postlarvae above 100 micron.

4.5 Aerator

The aerator as an equipment to increase the oxygen content of water is very much needed for the survival of the larvae being reared in a limited space at a fairly high density. Aside from this, the air bubbles that are produced will also help in making toxic gases in the water column dissipate. At this time the type of aerator that is generally being used is the Hiblow type that bears the trademark of Yasunaga or Takatsuki. Both need only limited electricity, that is 40 to 60 watts.

Included with the aerator unit are plastic hoses and airstones. The airstones that are used are factory made but many also use airstones which are made of coral stones the fabrication of which has become a home industry. The two types of airstones can produce sufficiently fine air bubbles.

Larval rearing in the backyard-scale hatcheries do not differ much from that of the large scale hatcheries both in the method of rearing and types of feed used. Seawater supply in hatcheries located along the coast can pump their water directly from the sea. For hatcheries located far from the sea, generally seawater is obtained from large-scale hatcheries where the water has already been filtered and is then transported by truck.

Maturation units for the production of gravid spawners are not found in backyard-scale hatcheries. The supply of nauplii is very much dependent on the large-scale hatcheries or on gravid spawners caught from the sea which are available only on a seasonal basis. In order to conserve on the use of seawater, the water is managed without changing. Feeding should be set so that it is not in excess which could later result in the lowering of the quality of the water being used as culture medium.

5. PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED

The problems faced by backyard-scale and largescale shrimp hatchery operators in general are the same. The said problems may be classified into technical and non-technical.

5.1 Technical Problems

5.1.1 Disease

Research on shrimp disease up to this time is still very limited so that disease is often the primary reason for larval rearing failures in hatcheries. Some of the disease organisms often found attacking shrimp larval are bacteria, fungus, protozoa and poor environmental conditions.

Other than those mentioned, shrimp hatcheries also often encounter luminous water, bent larvae, Vorticella sp., Zoothamnium sp., Nematode worms, Lagenidium sp. or the occurence of a lagen of what looks like dirt throughout the whole body of the larvae and which has been attributed to clamp bacteria (Sunaryanto and Mintardjo, 1980). The control or prevention of the various diseases is already being done with the use of a variety of antibiotics, malachite green, EDTA, formalin, chlorine and treflan. Even so not all of these said procedures give satisfactory result. The drying of all the facilities, equipment and tools used in hatchery operation is one way of breaking the life cycle of the disease causing organisms.

5.1.2 Broodstock availability

Ever since the success of the eyestalk ablation technique one of the constraint in the chain of activities in shrimp hatchery operation can already be managed. The problem which has emerged now is the availability of broodstock shrimps. As the intensive tambaks developed and as the price of shrimp improved, it became more difficult to obtain shrimps from the tambaks. The tambak farmers are more inclined to harvest the shrimps even when they are still small since it is more profitable.

The collection of broodstock or gravid spawners from the sea is limited to certain areas and to certain seasons only. Hatcheries which are located far from where the spawners are collected has to obtain these from other areas at a high price. In order to reduce dependence on broodstock and spawners from the sea, it is now time to venture into the tambak rearing of broodstock shrimps.

5.1.3 Feed availability

In shrimp larval rearing there are two types of feed that are needed: live feed and artificial feed. At this time there is no problem with regards artificial feed. Moist feed mash can be made by oneself and commercial diets are already available. Live feed consisting of plankton is still absolutely required and its function cannot yet be replaced by artificial feed.

Some large-scale hatcheries already have facilities for plankton culture available. However culture failures are still experienced often because of the limited skills of the persons handling the culture. The limited supply of plankton is felt more strongly in hatcheries which do not have their own facilities for pure culture. The plankton starters used also come from existing mass cultures. The cells of plankton which are mass-cultured repeatedly become smaller and smaller (become dormant) and are often contaminated with other organisms. This is the reason for most of the failures in most of the said hatcheries.

The supply of plankton to the small-scale hatcheries is still dependent on the large hatcheries. For this efforts are still being made to make it possible to provide plankton either in frozen or powder form.

5.2 Non Technical Problems

In addition to technical problems, non technical problems also become obstacles to the smooth operation of shrimp hatcheries. These non technical problems are as follows:

5.2.1 Skilled manpower

In general the technology for shrimp hatchery has already been mastered: Even so however technology without the manpower skilled in it often is the reason that the production attained is not satisfactory. This is still suffered by many hatcheries because of the limited number of skilled workers. Moreover for expert manpower, there are still many foreigners engaged, primarily from Taiwan so that the operational costs of hatchery becomes very high. In order to solve this problem, BBAP Jepara as well as other government agencies is providing training for shrimp hatchery technicians. Even so, the number of technicians with field experience is still limited.

5.2.2 Marketing

The continuing increase of intensive tambak development lately has been accompanied by the rapid increase of the number of shrimp hatcheries. Aside from this as advances in shrimp hatchery technology is mastered, the production of shrimp fry also increased rapidly. On the other hand the drop in shrimp market prices reduced the rate of tambak development and many tambak operators have lowered their stocking density and moreover have reduced their activities. It is because of this that the marketing of shrimp fry has encountered rough sailing.

In addition, the lack of coordinated communication between the hatchery and tambak also results in problems in marketing. Meanwhile one factor that is no less important in shrimp fry marketing is fry quality. As the number of shrimp hatcheries increases, market competition will be based more on quality. Tambak operators certainly will select good quality fry.

With that, hatcheries should always maintain the quality of shrimp fry produced to be able to compete in the market. It is safe to assume that the fry market will depend on the needs of the tambak and the quality of the fry itself. Because of this, in order to help in having a steady market it is always necessary to produce fry at the exact time, with the exact number and with the exact quality.

6. REFERENCES

Cholik, F., T. Ahmad dan A. Mustafa. 1988 Site selection and design of shrimp hatcheries (in Indonesian). Seminar Nasional Pembenihan Ikan dan Udang. Bandung, 5–6 July 1988.

Fujinaga and Kittaka. 1967 The large scale production of the young kuruma prawn (Penaeus japonicus Bate). Inf. Bull. Plankton. Jpn. Commemoration to Dr. Y. Matsue, p. 35.

Mock. 1974. Larval culture of penaeid shrimp at the Galveston Biological laboratory. NOAA Tech. Rep/NMFS Sirc., pp. 388–394.

Nurdjana, M.L., B. Martosudarmo, S. Adisukresno. 1979. Back-yard-scale shrimp hatchery, a technology appropriate for tambak farmers in Indonesia (in Indonesian). Diskusi Peranan Ahli Udang Dalam Pembinaan dan Pendayagunaan Sumberdaya Udang di Indonesia, Bogor, 22 – 24 October 1979.

Nurdjana, M.L., B. Martosudarmo, S. Adisukresno, B. Tiensongrusmee. 1979 The small scale backyard penaeid shrimp hatchery result of Jepara study. Indo-Pacific Fisheries Commision Proceedings 19th Session, Kyoto, Japan, 21 – 30 May 1980, pp. 780–789.

Sunaryanto dan K. Mintardjo. 1980 Diseases and techniques for prevention (in Indonesian). Pedoman Pembenihan Udang Penaeid. Direktorat jenderal Perikanan, Departemen Pertanian, pp. 107–116.

Anonymous. 1989 List and addresses of shrimp hatcheries (as of May 1987). Bulletin Warta Mina No. 13/1987 Th. ke VIII, pp. 21–22.

Anonymous. 1989 Shrimp market development (in Indonesian). Bulletin Warta Mina No. 27/1989 Th. ke III, pp. 49–51.

Tabel 1. List and address of shrimp hatcheries in Indonesia (as of May 1987)

Source: Bulletin Warta Mina vol. VIII No. 13, 1987.