by Richard Pretto
1. INTRODUCTION
2. OBJECTIVES
3. MAIN ISSUES
4. METHODOLOGIES FOR RURAL DIAGNOSIS.
5. SUSTAINABLE PRODUCTION SYSTEMS
6. MONITORING AND EVALUATION INDICATORS
7. MARKETING AND FEASIBILITY STUDIES
8. AQUACULTURE AND ENVIRONMENT
9. CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
This document is based on the author's experience, supported by a review of the literature, on Small-Scale Rural Aquaculture, a technological resource that is promoted in many parts of the world as a tool for improving the quality of life of the inhabitants of rural communities.
Significant efforts to disseminate Small-Scale Rural Aquaculture have been made in various parts of the world. There has been enough time and financial resources devoted to make errors and successes in a long and painful process of trial and error. We now have the experience necessary to allow us not only to define goals in the short, medium, and long term, but also the information needed to achieve them. However, during the course of this paper, we will question how much of the work that has been planned has been actually accomplished.
Although there has been quite a bit of progress in the use of new methodologies to evaluate this type of results, including the use of qualitative indicators, which complement the use of more objective quantitative indicators; these techniques remain scarcely used, perhaps because of a lack of appreciation or knowledge on the part of planners and developing countries.
In addressing these problems, we should evaluate the ease with which Small-Scale Rural Aquaculture can be promoted within the fall context of sustainable rural development, where the cultivation of different aquaculture species, whether plants or animals, is integrated with crop and livestock production as another agricultural activity of the farm, and not just as an isolated activity (IICA, 1995).
On the other hand, the generally poor results obtained in the practice of rural aquaculture by the very poor stem from their lack of sufficient land and other agricultural resources, which makes it rather difficult for them to benefit from Small-Scale Rural Aquaculture (Martinez-Espinosa, 1994). These groups require other forms of support, such as food aid, and their involvement in alternative solutions, such the creation of jobs in surrounding urban areas.
2.1 Short-Term Goals
2.2 Medium-Term Goals
2.3 Long-Term Goals
In order to contribute to the socio-economic sustainability of families and rural communities having good conditions for the successful development of aquaculture activities, Small-Scale Rural Aquaculture must reach the short, medium, and long-term goals of providing food security, improving nutrition, generating supplementary income, and protecting the environment
· Familiarizing the farmer with the multiple uses of water stored in ponds and small impoundments.
Our viewpoint is that there is not enough awareness of the importance of "harvesting water," particularly in those countries that have well defined rainy and dry periods.
· Developing the capacity of farmers so that, through their own observations and reasoning, they are able to solve limitations to the implementation of rural aquaculture projects, thereby improving the productivity of household farm units.
We believe that a great majority of farmers have not developed the independent capacity to run their own production units and thus continue to depend on governmental or non governmental technical assistance.
· Incorporating aquaculture activities within production systems for terrestrial plant and animal species, under a context of diversification that makes farm production systems more sustainable.
In this aspect, those countries where rural aquaculture is under the responsibility of the Ministry of Agriculture, rather than the Ministry of Fisheries, are more advanced.
· Contributing to the diversification and enhanced nutritional value of family diets.
In general, small ponds associated with pig and poultry activities provide fish yields that positively impact upon the family's diet. When other by products are utilized for pond fertilization, production tends to be less and more sporadic due to the poor quality of other bio-fertilizers.
· Securing farmers and their families in their local communities, working to obtain optimal yields from the exploitation of their land, and avoiding their migration to big cities, with the associated social and economic problems.
The author has not found evidence of positive results regarding this goal.
· Participating in the marketing of products, such as fingerlings and fresh or processed fish, which contribute to the diversification of family incomes, in addition to the traditional trade in other terrestrial agricultural products obtained from their production units.
Fresh fish is marketed in some occasions, but fry and fingerlings are rarely sold.
· Protecting water sources.
In general, the impact is minimal; however, awareness is necessary to avoid future problems.
· Assuring a solid basis for farm production through the optimal use of land and biotechnical resources available to community members, in order to produce enough food to satisfy the needs of humans and farm animals.
Sustainable farm production systems are increasingly becoming the object of the extension efforts of many rural development organizations.
· Generating a reliable data base on production and the costs of different production systems.
There is a general lack of reliable data on the production and economics of Small-Scale Rural Aquaculture activities.
· Achieving the capacity of farmers to market their agricultural products, including those of aquaculture origin, which contribute to income generation.
Due to their long traditions of practicing rural aquaculture, countries from the Asian region are more successful in generating income from this activity.
· Contributing to the management of micro-basins using sustainable practices that help stabilize water resources, improve ecological conditions and maintain bio-diversity.
The author have seen positive results in this area in several Asian countries, and a few examples in Africa and Latin America. Farmers of the southern USA give particular emphasis to the protection of micro basins, incorporating sport fishing at the farm level.
· Planning the reduction of external technical assistance, so that farmers take complete control of their production projects.
We don't know of any definitive achievements relating to this goal; however the modernization and globalization of the economies in which most governments are involved point toward this direction.
· Generating local technological experiences, in agreement with the efficient use of the available resources, and compatible with local cultural traditions and ecological preservation.
Financial institutions such as the World Bank, IFAD, IDB, and others, have linked rural poverty to the deterioration of natural renewable resources.
3.1 Macropolitics
3.2 Applied Research
3.3 Training
3.4 Commercialization
3.5 Producer's Organizations
3.6 Technical Assistance
3.7 Equipment and Inputs
3.8 Legal Dispositions
3.9 Micropolitics
3.10 Biofertilizers in Fish Culture
The majority of governments are involved, in one way or another, with aquaculture action plans (Pillay, T. 1983). These plans, some well advanced while others are incipient, are formulated to promote, facilitate, and guide aquaculture activities in the rural environment. Rural inhabitants should reach sustainable economic standards in agreement with social objectives that pursue food security, employment, income generation, and the preservation of natural resources, among others. However, the whole setting requires more coherence, since, in practice many fundamental aspects are not properly addressed.
There is no doubt that research constitutes an important part of the governmental effort to support development, and that research emphasis should be directed to the validation of crop systems, taking into consideration the different political, social, cultural, economic and ecological implications which are always present in the rural environment.
An important limitation is the almost complete lack of experience possessed by many governmental and non-governmental institutions involved in sustainable rural development activities in terms of productions systems, which integrates aquatic and terrestrial crops and procures an efficient use of resources, such as soil, water, manual labor and family time. This situation is probably due to failure to recognize the importance of the subject, limited financial resources or simple ignorance.
On the other hand, extension workers involved in the promotion of Small-Scale Rural Aquaculture who are responsible for the preparation of training material and the planning and follow up of annual farm activities, have limited access to research results, hindering their successful contribution to farmer's production results.
Because extension workers often take paternalistic and very interventionist approaches when assisting farmers, rather than acting as "facilitators" of the production process, few farmers learn from and gather experience by self observation and reasoning by facing new problems. It is also clear that a great majority of the extensionists involved in rural aquaculture do not have solid practical experience, because they have been poorly exposed to integrated production systems, to favoring the use of local resources, to minimizing the loss of nutrients, to using integrated management pest control, to crop rotation and to many other sustainable practices (Pretto, R. 1985).
Extensionists, in general, have experienced difficulties in successfully reaching these types of clients. Due to financial limitations and the employment of incorrect extension methodologies, many governments face difficulties in their attempts to help farmers reach a self management stage of development (Zapata, F. 1993).
When marketing of fish has been promoted in rural areas, several aspects have been frequently overlooked, such as the need for fish preservation, storage facilities, adequate transportation, and knowledge of wholesale and retail trade. Frequently, activities are developed without an initial planning phase to identify fundamental aspects, such as the potential markets and their volumes (Drewes, E. 1988).
Some projects have been promoted through the offering of credit without assuring that conditions exist that guarantee the commercial viability of the activity. For example, problems with transportation, markets, production volumes, product quality, etc. may make it difficult to repay loans.
A great majority of these projects have been subsidized with grants given by donor agencies to governments and NGOs. Non-sustainable technologies, such as the use of concentrated feed, which is not affordable to poor farmers, have been frequently promoted. As a result, when grant funds are finished, production efforts are minimal.
Various types of producer's organizations are promoted, in different parts of the world, as a means by which farmers may benefit from cooperative efforts. Projects are implemented so that farmers get acquainted with sustainable technologies suitable to their farm conditions. New experiences gained through communal projects are then transferred by farmers to their individual plots.
In order to strengthen farmer's organizations, much effort should be placed in this area, so that farmers will achieve the capacity to implement appropriate solutions using proper administrative and management control practices (Lacki, P. 1995).
In general, governmental extension services lack the necessary funds and adequate infrastructure to offer the assistance required by small farmers in such areas as integrated crop production, fish health, fish nutrition, seed production, aquacultural infrastructure, production economics, water quality, etc.
More recently, governments and NGOs are promoting demonstration farms for sustainable agriculture so farmers may reach self sufficiency in such aspects as seed production, grow out, diet diversification and marketing. However, in general, these efforts are still considered small. To provide service to these farmers, it is necessary to establish "Sustainable Development Committees" organized in provincial federations and national confederations.
Governments, NGOs and universities should provide technical assistance to these federations and confederations, and also continue to act as facilitators, promoting intersectorial coordination among agencies. Actions should be directed towards producing concrete results which will be perceived by farmers as directly benefiting them.
Some rural aquaculture projects have been promoted which have depended on high cost electronic instruments, chemicals, and farm machinery which are inaccessible to small-scale farmers. Infrastructure for Small-Scale Rural Aquaculture must be constructed using low level technology and aquaculture ponds must be stocked with fish species which are highly resistant to management errors and to disease. It is essential that this type of activity emphasize the use of those technologies that give priority to the utilization of local resources.
In many countries, legislation dealing with the practice of rural aquaculture is very weak or nonexistent. In some nations, the number of regulations has increased according to the development of the activity, addressing such aspects as the importance of preserving water quality and the environment in general, and penalizing poaching, and other harmful activities.
Small-Scale Rural Aquaculture, when integrated into other agricultural activities, is a means to diversify farm production, opening the possibility of increased productivity through a better utilization of farms resources such as land, water, manpower, and equipment (Pullin, et al. 1980)
Activities to expand rural aquaculture have normally failed to consider existing information 1 at the farm level, in relation to climate, topography, soil texture, predominant flora, water resources, availability of biofertilizers and other by-products, 2 and the possibility of integrating different crops and farm animals, among others. At the same time, the possibility of obtaining governmental support, which generally is scanty and deficient, has been overestimated.
1 It is necessary to identify the different limitant and favourable conditions to decide on alternative uses of soil resources such as water availability, possibility of gravity source, topographic suitability for pond construction vs. the requirements of associated crops, size of plots dedicated to grain and vegetable crops, and also food needs for family and farm animals.2 Small-scale rural aquaculture must be oriented to families that are in other agricultural activities which generate by-products and other foods for the cultivation of aquatic organisms. It is convenient to promote the establishment of different agricultural species adequately integrated under a scheme of nutrients recycling and the total use of all by-products available at farm and/or local levels. It takes at least three to five years to establish a diversity of crops and farm animals, new techniques to be learned, and farm labour reorganization under a scheme of nutrient recycling and total use of all production factors available at the farm level, based on an autonomous agroecosystem in harmony with nature. Two-year projects are thus condemned to failure.
Lately, a major effort has been observed in the promotion of new projects to identify targeted groups by implementing socio-economic surveys and other participatory research methods that gather information on several aspects, such as traditional crops, income levels, the situation with regard to natural resources, accessibility to urban centers, availability of technical assistance, living conditions and so on.
In many instances, communal projects have experienced poor results. The objective is that all members participate in both the learning of rural fish culture methodologies, and the benefits from production yields. Problems arise when projects are implemented without project members first being motivated and conscious of their responsibilities and duties in the execution of the different activities.
Although the associative concept facilitates the extension activities of governments and NGOs, there have been several cases in which, scarcely a year after implementing a production project, the land owner who transferred it to the group claims unilateral control of the project and its improvements. When this situation is not resolved, the project is suspended and, in many cases, the production infrastructure developed is abandoned.
Another difficulty that is very common, occurs when the harvest is divided according to the time dedicated to the project by its members. With time, some members drop out the project, leaving only a few members. This situation is not considered too negative, because the remaining farmers, in certain way, have been self-selected as those committed to achieving further progress.
When farm by-products are utilized as fish feed, yields tend to be lower than those obtained when concentrated feed is given. However, when the quality and quantity of bio-fertilizer given is appropriate, high yields are reported. The important point is that production systems that depend on local resources tend to be more sustainable.
A frequent error found in many projects, is the promotion of rural aquaculture as a miraculous formula to solve protein deficiency problems, with the resulting farmer's frustration when they compare results with production efforts. When food sources for feeding fish have not been planned, the underfeeding which may result will negatively affect yields.
Although African and Latin American countries do not have an aquaculture tradition comparable to that found in China, cultural barriers against the use of organic biofertilizer obtained from various farm animals for fertilizing fish ponds has not been observed. Instead, when people from these areas understand the basic principles and rules for organic fertilization, they rapidly adapt, or introduce them to their production systems.
However, in contrast to the Asian countries, where manure and crop wastes are sometimes composted, in Latin America and Africa, the tendency is to apply these materials directly to the ponds, not taking advantage of their conversion, through an anaerobic process, into products high in carbohydrate, a high quality food source with better protein content.
Farmers from marginal areas generally keep a variety of farm animals, but they are not confined. When animals are kept loose, it is difficult to obtain enough of the organic matter required for proper pond water fertilization. Confined animals, such as chickens and pigs, require, on the other hand, a balanced diet which may compete with farmer's family diet.
We are aware of projects in different countries where animals kept in confinement were undernourished due to poor feeding regimes, producing biofertilizers of low quality. It is also common to associate animals such as pigs with fish cultivation, but in isolated areas obtaining commercial concentrated feed and delivering finished products to the market may be a problem.
In inaccessible areas, better results have been obtained by associating ruminants with fish culture activities, due to the fact that the food required for these animals, such as grasses, is available at the farm sites. Although fish production is low under these circumstances, it is sustainable.
As this type of fish farmer lacks the knowledge and conditions required to do artificial reproduction, stocking of species such as tilapias and common carp is favored, due to their capacity for self-reproduction in ponds. In high altitude areas, cooler waters affect the growth rate of tilapias, so common carp are more appropriate. In general, farmers have great difficulties in becoming self sufficient with fish seed, frequently causing ponds to remain without stocking long after harvest.
A new, less paternalistic development paradigm is necessary to promote small-scale rural aquaculture. Production based on locally available resources should be emphasized, including food sources for farm animals, without affecting family food requirements. Other production components, such as the use of trees should be oriented towards protecting the watersheds and other water courses. Producers should take steps towards achieving self-sufficiency in fish seed production, through individual or collective efforts.
It will be very helpful to develop and adopt a series of standards in relation to organic fertilization, taking into consideration the specific situation of each region (Delmendo, M. 1984).
It is widely accepted that conventional methods for socio-economic rural diagnosis have not been very effective in determining the real needs and aspirations of people when development projects are formulated. In this context, new diagnostic methods have appeared, such as rapid rural appraisal (RRA) and participatory rural appraisal (PRA), that incorporate community members in the identification, analysis and evaluation of their limitations and possibilities, according to their own perceptions, so that together with institutional facilitators priorities are established.
These diagnostic participatory methodologies are accomplished through semi-structured interviews, the employment of different information gathering techniques, the elaboration of model maps, the prioritizing of community problems, joint evaluations and the presentation of results to participants.
However, in planning aquaculture projects associated with other farm activities, complementary information is required, such as the:
1. Level of requirements for products of animal and vegetable origin that could be produced in the region, subject to development efforts.2. Possibilities of introducing the aquaculture component and obtaining satisfactory levels.
3. Degree of production needed to satisfy self nutrition requirements, and commercialization of surplus production.
4. Capacity of government extension services to assist the project, and the support required from non-governmental organizations, universities, cooperatives, and private enterprises with experience in rural development.
5. Animal and vegetable species, in addition to the aquatic species, with production potential in the study area, either for soil enhancement, forage production, food for human consumption, food for farm animals, firewood, timber, etc.
6. Community infrastructure necessary to guarantee the success of production activities for nutritional self-sufficiency and income generation, for example, roads and bridges to guarantee technical assistance; access to inputs and marketing of surplus production; health centers, so that farmers can maintain good physical fitness to devote more time and effort to increasing production; improvement of housing conditions to assure adequate rest after field work; better accessibility to water for domestic consumption, to firewood, and to improved stoves and other domestic facilities, so that women and youth have more time available to devote to food production activities.
Diagnostic and participative research methodology has acquired a great popularity and is widely supported by financial agencies, NGOs and, most recently, by governmental institutions. The experience gained in Panama with participative rural appraisal methodologies indicates that field information should be complemented simultaneously with other traditional methodologies, such as the use of questionnaires and surveys.
Geographic information systems (GIS) are based in the synthesis of spatial and non-spatial data obtained from different sources: These include cartographic information, such as the location of main streams, roads, towns, and political divisions, and data from other sources, such as aerial photography, remote sensing and census.
GIS cover such aspects as the physical, biotic, and socioeconomic situation of study areas. Transects are established for a detailed characterization of the vegetation, biodiversity, and aquatic and terrestrial fauna and flora. They include such topics as alternative uses of soils, management zones, project situation, actual use of soil, erosion, geomorphology, hydrology, litology, placement of towns, etc. The information obtained can contribute to support an increased number of small-scale aquaculture projects.
In developing countries, GIS is considered relatively new, and its efficiency is limited by the lack of dependable and reliable data to feed the system. However, it is recognized that in the future these methodologies will become important tools for planning sustainable rural development activities, including fish cultivation.
5.1 Seed Production
5.2 Fish Feed
5.3 Fish Species
5.4 Fishing Gear
5.5 Production Expectations
5.6 Technical Assistance Reduction
In certain cases, Small-Scale Rural Aquaculture can contribute to improving the quality of life in marginal areas, if a series of factors which determine the success or the failure of the activity is taken into consideration (Duncan, B. 1983).
The importance of several of these factors has become evident based on difficulties with rural aquaculture projects encountered in various parts of the world. For American and African countries, this is the price of learning a relatively new activity, a process of trial and error which is still in evolution (FAO, UNDP, NORAD, 1987).
To begin Small-Scale Rural Aquaculture requires more than a good water source. A compromise should be reached among different factors, such as: size and number of ponds required, design of the infrastructure, and availability of by-products for organic fertilization and fish food.
Also, pond management plans, including the selection of fish species to be cultivated, the size of fingerlings to be stocked, stocking densities, fattening periods, weight at harvest, and seed sources, should be considered. The availability of seine nets for partial harvesting, the use that will be given to the production, either for self consumption or for income generation, the possibilities of preservation, the availability of family labor to attend the different production activities, the knowledge level about fish cultivation and agricultural activities in general, and the possibility of integrating the different agricultural activities to take advantage of available water, are also some of the relevant issues in relation to Small-Scale Rural Aquaculture and its logistics.
Many Small-Scale Rural Aquaculture projects remain active until the promoting organization ceases to provide fish seed. At this point, the beneficiaries experience serious difficulties in obtaining fry for stocking, either because of a lack of financial resources for purchasing fingerlings or due to a lack of transportation facilities. In many projects, seed are provided free of cost, without making provision for training the participants in seed production. As a consequence, ponds experiencing excellent production remain full of water, but without fish culture activity.
It is extremely important that projects, especially those in remote areas, train the participants in fish seed production, incorporating at the same time the necessary infrastructure, such as earthen ponds for spawning and for raising fingerlings.
The fish species employed under these situations should be those low in the food web, with reproduction occurring under natural conditions. Species that require hormone-induced reproduction and sophisticated infrastructure for seed production should not be considered.
Just as subsistence farmers make provision for the reproduction of other farm animals, they should also produce their own fish fingerlings. In many parts of the world, tilapia and common carp are considered the most suitable fish species for use in rural aquaculture because they reproduce naturally in ponds, are very resistant to management error, have fast growth rates, and are herbivorous-omnivorous. Chinese carps 3, and Colosoma 4 species require induced reproduction, so they are not recommended for Small-Scale Rural Aquaculture, unless where they occur naturally, in which case farmers can collect seed from the wild.
3 Chinese carps and other species can contribute in a significant way as a source of protein by stocking them periodically in large impoundments to which poor farmers have access, fishing them with different gears. In Panama an exotic species, Tucunare (Cichla ocellaris), from the Amazon Basin is a very important source of animal protein for poor people who live around lake Gatun, an impoundment involved in the operation of the Panama Canal. Other impoundments built for hydroelectric or irrigation purposes (North of Brazil) also produce fish for the benefit of artisanal fishermen.4 In those areas where colossoma occurs naturally, poor farmers stock their ponds collecting seeds from the wild from those areas where fingerlings accumulate in the dry period. This is common in Brazil and Venezuela.
In Panama rice-fish cultivation ponds are also used for tilapia seed production, supplying fingerlings to regular grow-out ponds.
In Panama, a maximum of three types of pond per project has been recommended (Pretto, et al 1983), ponds for reproduction, grow out, and fattening. The size of the fattening ponds should not be less than 300 m2, with 500 m2 or more being much better. The minimum number of ponds per project should be at least two: one dedicated to the reproduction of adults and fingerling production, and the other for grow out to harvestable size. However, a great number of projects still depend on government aid for provision of fish seed. This situation is particularly common in Latin America and Africa. In the southern USA, small water impoundments are stocked with two local species that reproduce freely such as largemouth black bass (Micropterus salmoides) and bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus).
When they raise pigs or chickens, farmers are conscious that the rate of growth will depend on the quantity and quality of the rations given to these animals. However, this is not the case when dealing with fish culture, and frequently fish are underfed, producing very low yields at harvest, a situation that eventually could discourage farmer interest in this activity. Underfeeding can be a consequence of a lack of access to agricultural by-products by farmers.
Several tilapia species are frequently utilized in Small-Scale Rural Aquaculture, favouring different strains of Oreochromis niloticus and O. aureaus. They all require warm water (25-29 °C) for optimum growth. For cooler areas, common carp are considered more suitable because of their wider range of water temperature toleration (20-30 °C). In Central America, as elsewhere, both local and introduced species are cultivated.. Where seed obtained from the wild is available, local species are favored. This is the case for "guapote tigre" (Cichlasoma managuensis), brown shrimp (Macrobrachium amazonicum) and freshwater snail (Pomacea zetequi), among others. The polyculture of tilapia and common carp is highly recommended, especially under situations where good sources of organic fertilizers rich in detritus, such as cattle, pig or chicken manures, are available.
Among other factors, stocking density depends upon pond water exchange capacity, that is, the greater the volume of water which can be exchanged, the higher the stocking rate that is possible, as long as provisions are made for the increased feed required to assure acceptable yields. In general, in this type of project, stocking density is in the range of 1-2 fingerlings per m2 of pond surface, taking 6 to 10 months for fish to reach harvestable size. However, reproduction frequently occurs in these ponds and populations become stunted, unless fishing pressure through partial harvesting is applied to get rid of unwanted excess reproduction. Attempts to produce all male tilapia by hybridization were not successful with this type of clientele.
In small-scale aquaculture projects, poor farmers often cannot afford to buy a net. Many countries do not produce fish nets, requiring the importation of such items. When fishing gear is lacking, fishing pressure is inadequate, and ponds are fished only when the extension agents make nets available. In other situations, even if nets are provided by the project, they eventually deteriorate, and when funds are exhausted, fishing pressure and yields diminish.
Ponds for self sufficiency should be harvested periodically 5 using different gear such as hook and line, traps, seines, etc. Ponds act as refrigerators, keeping protein units alive ready for later consumption and avoiding the preservation costs of a product that has, by nature, a short shelf life.
5 The alternative of total harvesting by draining the pond still remains. The inconvenience is a large amount offish made available once or twice a year, instead of small amounts all-year-around.
It is necessary to validate the efficiency of different types of fishing gear which are constructed with local materials successfully employed for partial harvesting in other parts of the world, such as in Thailand, the Philippines, and China. The repair and maintenance of fishing nets have not been given the importance that they require. Seines can also be constructed with local products, such as burlap bags.
It is very common to create, among participant farmers, expectations of unrealistically large fish yields. Is necessary to take into consideration that fish culture is a non-traditional activity for the majority of people in Latin America and Africa, and that it requires a process of learning by doing, and also its harmonization with the production of other farm products, such as vegetables, grains, fruits, firewood, timber and farm animals, among other production components.
In the past, fish culture has been promoted without taking into consideration the other needs of the farmer, his family and rural community as a whole, such as roads, housing, latrines, wells, stoves, domestic supplies, medicine, clothes, education, and also infrastructural facilities for meetings, sports and religious activities, etc. These aspects should be analyzed at the time that production plans are conceived.
In the majority of the projects where small-scale rural aquaculture has been promoted, a planned reduction of external technical assistance has not been considered. It is necessary to place more effort on developing self-sufficiency, so that farmers reach the capacity to manage their own production units (Bordenav E.J. 1976).
6.1 Species Diversity
6.2 Bioresources Recycling
6.3 Productive Capacity of the Natural Resources Base
6.4 Economic Efficiency (Cost/Benefit Ratio)
6.5 Other Indicators
When assessing the potential for fish culture, one of the limitations that some undeveloped countries face is a lack of information on current situations and perspectives in local areas. Also appropriate indicators for monitoring project accomplishment in terms of food security, earnings equity, sustainability of activities, etc. are lacking (Engle, C. 1986).
Traditional indicators focus on measuring quantitative aspects, such as income, production and productivity levels, making it difficult to relate results to social-economic aspects, such as employment and under-employment, the concentration and distribution of income, food availability to individual family members, and the level of improvement of the nutritional state of a population as a whole.
Simple, realistic and reliable indicators that can supply a clear picture of the role of small-scale aquaculture in rural development are still lacking.
Various authors have proposed a series of qualitative indicators as a wider evaluation tool to determine whether goals established have been accomplished, so that adjustments can be introduced during the course of the project. Many of these indicators go beyond the execution period of the project, allowing the documentation of evidence of the sustainability of activities:
It is necessary to identify, for every local condition, the aquatic and terrestrial species that are compatible, so as to consolidate a production base that will supply a sustainable source of foods year round and in sufficient amounts to satisfy the nutritional needs of humans and farm animals.
The experience gained by many countries involved in small-scale aquaculture confirms the positive impact of utilizing farm by products on the sustainability of agro-aquaculture activities, by lowering production costs, generating income, and reducing risks.
As a fundamental natural resource which supports agro-aquaculture activities, soil can become a factor limiting production when technologies that do not preserve soil fertility are followed.
In general, there is a lack of aquatic inventories, with a limited number of studies which consider the multiple uses of water sources. In general, countries have only a small amount of information about the optimal use of these resources.
6 The net return of a project is the return after substracting the costs. If the net return is positive the project is profitable, if it is negative, the project is considered non-profitable.
The operation of fish culture activities in farm households incorporates women and the young into the food production process.
When populations are concentrated around rural projects, migration to urban areas diminishes, because local populations become active participants in production.
Food security, in a wider context, should not only measure food abundance, its availability year round and access to it, but should also measure changes in the type and quality of products available for family consumption. In every case, it is more important to monitor the state of the natural resources at the farm, the community and the regional level, because it is known that environmental deterioration is closely linked to poverty.
Several other parameters should be taken into consideration, for example, family planning to reduce the number of children; improvement of education, health standards, and housing level, and improvement of access roads and transportation facilities, all of which contribute also to lower rates of infant mortality and morbidity and influence the quality of rural life.
Organizational efforts to overcome inferior life styles, to reduce geographic dispersion and migration to urban centers, and to increase job opportunities and the active participation of people in problem solving are all social indicators that should be taken into consideration as primary indicators of success or failure of projects.
Most farm units in Central America have less than 2 ha of land. Farmers market less than half of what they produce. They lack credit and produce with very low technology mainly rice, corn, beans, plantain and some root crops.
The experience in Latin America (Noriega, C. et al. 1989) indicates that project implementation has been oriented towards nutritional improvement, poverty reduction and income generation by marketing small amounts of extra production. There is evidence that, in general, the implementation of Small-Scale Rural Aquaculture activities has not produced a real impact on meeting the needs of small-scale farmers (AQUILA, 1994).
Feasibility studies for Small-Scale Rural Aquaculture should provide information on such aspects as:
· The existence of markets for surplus production.· Access to the required human, material, administrative and financial resources for project implementation.
· Demonstration of the financial, economic and social advantages of assigning resources to fish culture under a scheme of integration with other farm activities.
In many cases Small-Scale Rural Aquaculture projects has been only oriented by general profiles of the geographic areas and of participants/producers. The reasons for this include the imposition of projects by governmental institutions claiming valid alternatives to fight hunger and poverty, and to make optimal use of resources in each region. (Wijkstrom, U. 1989).
A noticeable lack of information and appropriate statistics at the farm level adds to this situation, which is frequently aggravated by the limited resources available to the institutions supporting these development activities. The importance of such studies for effective decision making on the design, execution, evaluation and follow up of development projects is recognized.
The economic feasibility of Small-Scale Rural Aquaculture activities is strengthened when, in addition to components that directly influence the cost and current income, other elements, such species diversification and integration in the context of multiple water users, the optimal use of family labor, processing crops, nutrient recycling, etc. are considered.
During project design, a series of parameters that define an economic baseline should be considered. These include the annual distribution of manual labor, the current regime of water and land resource utilization, and the availabilities of farm animals as a source of organic manures, other farm byproducts, and financial resources for purchasing other required inputs.
Another important criteria is the potential change in the use of resources before and after project activities. The effect of these changes in food production is considered very important in economic feasibility studies. If a new crop, say cultured fish, competes with the food resources available for family self nutrition, most probably the conflict will be resolved by favoring the family's nutritional needs.
8.1 Effects of Aquaculture Practices on the Environment
8.2 Effects of Non-Aquacultural Activities on Rural Aquaculture
The environmental effects resulting from small-scale rural aquaculture projects are mostly positive. The construction of small impoundments influences the microecological conditions of the flooded agricultural land. The presence of standing water favors silt precipitation, presenting the opportunity to incorporate "harvested" nutrients into different food webs that enhance the production of a diversity of aquatic species, increasing fish yields.
When ponds are managed to maintain an optimum primary productivity, drainage water will contain large amounts of nutrients. When this water is used for irrigation, crop yields increase. Ponds with water rich in nutrients equally favor higher fish production (Alien, et al. 1976).
Areas flooded after pond construction increase their water tables, opening the possibility of establishing shallow wells for domestic water supply 7. Wildlife, including birds, take advantage of these impoundment waters, especially during dry periods. After impoundment construction, areas under erosion by surface water run off no longer lose fertile topsoil.
7 Although fertilized pond water is ideal for fish production, it should never be used for drinking, cooking, dishwashing or bathing purposes, without adequate treatment, as micro-organisms present in the water may cause intestinal or cutaneous infections. After harvesting, people should wash thoroughly with abundant soap and water.
Trees which will provide fruit or lumber can be planted in the areas surrounding the impounded water, influencing the microcline and, as they grow, favoring the introduction of other farm animals and crops which require shade. Small farm animals and other crops, such as culinary and medicinal plants, all of which contribute to the productivity of household units, can also be considered.
Water contamination problems are uncommon in Small-Scale Rural Aquaculture because these activities are normally developed in areas far from the influence of urban and agro-industrial activities. Also springs and other water sources originate in the surrounding micro-watersheds. Mortality of fish 8 due to pesticide contamination sometimes occurs, especially when farmers are not careful when washing equipment and in disposing of bags, cans and other toxic chemical containers.
8 The number offish that die daily in a pond can be an indication of the type of existing problem. When a large number offish die during the night, lack of exygen is probably responsible, even if they do not die, they will be ighly.
Mortalities, low growth rates, and diseases may affect fish when aerial spraying is carried out without taking into consideration wind direction and intensity.
In some countries, important water sources are temporarily contaminated by the release of sugar must, a by-product of sugar cane processing which has high carbohydrate concentration, causing a high biological oxygen demand. Fish from artisanal fisheries lose quality when lagoons receive human sewage from large cities, heavy metals and pathogenic microorganisms being the most common contaminants of fish flesh under these conditions.
Deforestation of watersheds affects the amount and quality of water available for rural aquaculture and other uses. This process is starting to reverse, thanks to private and governmental awareness of the importance in taking steps to preserve natural resources.
1. Small-Scale Rural Aquaculture presents a wide range of cases, both successes and failures, with more positive results occurring in Asia, where fish culture has been practiced for many generations, and more failures in Africa and Latin America.
2. Where promotion of Small-Scale Rural Aquaculture has not completely succeeded, a common error has been the initiation of an activity without a previous period for training farmers to analyze a diversity of factors which effect results.
3. Because of an abundance of soft funds provided by governmental agencies, NGOs and the private sector, a great majority of small-scale aquaculture projects have been subsidized in an extremely paternalistic way. After funds are exhausted, activities are frequently abandoned due to the poor training in sustainable technologies received by their participants. Projects depending for production on the use of concentrated feeds or chemical fertilizers, or which do not produce their own fish seed are, in general, non-sustainable.
4. In the future, economic resources for supporting the development of small-scale aquaculture activities will be more limited because of structural adjustments introduced by most undeveloped countries. It is necessary to accelerate the privatization of extension services, so that governmental institutions play the new role of facilitators, and no longer as interventionists, so that farmers become more capable of self-management.
5. The development of local planning mechanisms should be strengthened in order to guarantee the sustainability of project activities in the medium and long term.
6. Producer organizations should receive more practical training, in order to establish a solid basis for the development of the capacity for self-initiative. Farmers should be able to efficiently identify and analyze the requirements needed for Small-Scale Rural Aquaculture and other farm production activities and the problems likely to be encountered during implementation. Springs and other sources of running water can be "harvested" in small impoundments for multiple farm uses, such as irrigation, fish culture, and provision of water for farm animals and domestic consumption, contributing to improving the well being of inhabitants of rural areas through better nutrition and income generation.
7. Chicken, pig and cattle manure, leaves, rice bran and other farm by-products are normally used in Latin America and Africa in Small-Scale Rural Aquaculture. In some cases, Asian countries also compost this material before fertilizing ponds. Commercial feeds are rarely used.
8. Small-Scale Rural Aquaculture should be given another opportunity, within the broader context of sustainable rural development, for the benefit of large populations demanding better nutrition and labor opportunities.
9. New projects should be given a longer period of support, with at least three to five years allowed for the infrastructure required for sustainable production to be established at the farm level. Two to three year projects are condemned to failure.
* Apart from the layout, the references are as presented by the author
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