Ndelilio A. Urio
Animal Science and Production Department, Faculty of Agriculture
Sokoine University of Agriculture, P. O. Box 3004, Morogoro, Tanzania
Smallholder dairy production has become an important agricultural activity in Kilimanjaro area in recent years. Land is very scarce in the region, particularly in the area immediately surrounding Mt. Kilimanjaro. Scarcity of feeds is one of the major constraints facing these smallholder dairy producers. The feed resources commonly used are grass cut and transported from the lowlands, established pastures, crop residues and agro-industrial by-products. Increased productivity of established pastures can be effected through improvement in agronomic practices, the inclusion of suitable legume species in pasture leys, and through better supply of pasture seeds. Utilization of crop residues can be improved through efficient handling and transportation, and supplementation for the most limiting nutrients. Organized markets and distribution networks for the agro-industrial byproducts will improve the availability of inputs and increase productivity.
Kilimanjaro Region is one of the 20 administrative Regions that make up the United Republic of Tanzania.- Most of the land in this Region lies at more than 800 m above sea level with Kibo peak, (the highest point in Africa) being 5,895 m. Because of the high altitude, the region has a mild climate with temperatures ranging from 17 to 34°C rainfall varies greatly from place to place. The humid, intensively cultivated highland area receives 1,000 1,500 mm annually, with the probability of at least 1,000 mm even in the driest years (Naveh and Anderson 1966). Agriculture is the main industry of the region, and since the 1930's the production of arabica coffee has played a major role in the economic development of the region. Other important crops include bananas, maize, beans, paddy, wheat and cotton. Coffee and bananas, are by far the most important crops, occupying about 55% of the cultivated land in the region as a whole and about 69% of the cultivated land around Mt. Kilimanjaro (Mlambiti, Edelsten and Colyer 1982).
Livestock raising is traditional, and despite the land problem, the region had 751,823 head of cattle, 192,810 goats, 99,211 sheep and 12,300 pigs in 1978 (Ministry of Agriculture 1978). Since the mid-1960's there has been an increasing tendency towards diversification away from coffee. This desire to diversify production has resulted from the threat of frequent outbreaks of coffee disease as well as the need to maximize the use of scarce land resource. As a result, dairy farming has developed-very rapidly in the past decade in Kilimanjaro area. In a recent survey conducted in one of the Districts (Urio and Mlay 1984) it was revealed that about 90% of the farmers raising cattle had replaced their indigenous Zebu cattle with higher-yielding crossbred animals.
Land is limiting, however, more than 60% of the farm holdings are less than 1 ha, and 80% are 2 ha or less (Table 1). As a result farmers have very few options for increasing fodder production, and scarcity of livestock feeds is one of the major constraints facing the smallholder dairy farmer.
Table 1. Proportions of holdings by farm-size group in Kilimanjaro Region
|
Farm size (ha) |
Holdings in Moshi and Rombo Districts (%) |
Holdings in Pare District (%) |
Holdings in the Region |
|
Under 1 |
65 |
82 |
72 |
|
1-2 |
22 |
11 |
18 |
|
2-3 |
8 |
4 |
6 |
|
3-4 |
2 |
1 |
2.0 |
|
4-5 |
2 |
1 |
2.0 |
|
5-10 |
1 |
0.5 |
0 |
|
10-20 |
0 |
0.5 |
0 |
Source: Mlambiti, Edelsten and Colyer. 1982
Feed Resources
For convenience the major livestock feed resources can be grouped into natural grasslands, established pastures, crop residues, agro-industrial byproducts, and others.
Natural Grasslands
As most of the smallholder dairy farmers in Kilimanjaro live in the densely populated highland areas, there are hardly any areas which can be reserved for herding cattle. All the cattle in the highland areas are stall-fed and feed has to be brought in from long distances. Nevertheless, the natural grasslands do play an indirect role in that grass is cut from the lowlands and transported to the mountain homesteads. The quality and quantity of such grass is typically affected by the seasonal variation in rangelands productivity. The grass is either carried on people's heads or, for those who can afford it, by hired pick-ups, tractors or trucks. This grass may contain such species as Cynodon, Digitaria, Echinochloa and indigenous strains of glycine. During the dry season, however, such grass may consist largely of mature Hyparrhenia and Themeda. Farmers may travel to the lowland areas and cut/harvest the grasses themselves, or they may purchase by the head-loads from hawkers.
Established Pastures
Kilimanjaro is one of the few areas in Tanzania where established pastures do play a significant role in livestock feeding. Three grass species are specifically grown for cutting and feeding livestock in Kilimanjaro. These are Setaria splendida, Pennisetum purpureum (elephant grass, Napier grass) and Tripsacum laxum (Guatemala grass). Nearly every small dairy farmer in Kilimanjaro has at least two of the above grass species in his pasture plots. Due to scarcity of land these grasses are grown mostly in rows and terraces between the coffee and banana plants, on farmstead boundaries and along road sides. The three grass species have become extremely popular in Kilimanjaro and there have been instances of farmers having up-rooted their coffee in order to give room for fodder crops. It is interesting to note that the widespread use of the above grass species has generally taken place largely through farmers' own efforts to supply fellow farmers with rooted cuttings for propagation free of charge. Despite the popularity there is still a tendency to neglect pasture and not to give it the degree of husbandry that is accorded to cash or food crops. Inputs such as fertilizers, proper spacing and irrigation could increase the yield and hence the productivity of these grass species several fold.
In addition to the above three grass species, a few farmers grow alfalfa and Rhodes grass but due to scarcity of land the acreage is very limited. Two commercial farms grow and sell bales of alfalfa and Rhodes grass hay, but their production is far outstripped by demand. The potential exists, however, for growing these fodder crops on a large scale and selling the bales to the smallholder dairy farmers who otherwise purchase low-quality grass.
A number of research projects in the northern part of Tanzania have had the specific objective of improving both the bulk and quality of the herbage on established pastures. Most of this work has concentrated on trying to find suitable legumes to include in mixtures with the three common grass species. Nevah and Anderson (1966, 1967) investigated the suitability of several legume/grass mixtures for the highland areas of Kilimanjaro and Arusha. They particularly singled out Desmodium uncinatum, which gave a dry-matter yield of more than 20,000 kg/ha, as well as two strains of Medicago sativa (Saladina lucerne and hairy Peruvian lucerne) as suitable legumes for inclusion in the pasture leys. Rapidity of germination, vigour, growth habit and seeding rate were factors considered of importance in addition to yield. In a later study at Lyamungu Research Station reported by Lugenja (1979) several Desmodium species were again identified as being suitable legumes for inclusion in the pasture leys (see Table 2).
Despite the apparent benefits of including legumes in pasture leys, farmers in Kilimanjaro continue to grow pure stands of the grasses mentioned. There is clearly a missing link between the research findings and their application at the farmers' level. Lack of seeds is one of the constraints to the adoption of legumes, but the farmers also have to be convinced of the actual benefits in terms of greater and higher-quality yields from the inclusion of legumes in the pasture plots taking into consideration the limited land resource.
Crop Residues
Two main crop residues are utilized as livestock feeds in Kilimanjaro. These are maize stover and been haulms. Unlike other areas in the country where these crop residues are produced the vicinity of livestock dwellings, in Kilimanjaro the crop residues have to be transported from the lowland areas to the highland homesteads. Transport is the main factor limiting the quantities utilized per year.
Table 2. Dry-matter yields of grass/legume mixtures for a five-year period at Lyamungu Coffee Research Station
|
Grass/legume mixture
|
Annual yield (tonnes DM/ha) |
||||
|
1972 |
1973 |
1974 |
1975 |
1976 |
|
|
Guatemala/Neonotonia wightii |
26.3 |
17.8 |
13.5 |
13.3 |
16.2 |
|
Guatemala/Desmodium uncinatum |
26.6 |
20.8 |
12.7 |
16.9 |
14.5 |
|
Guatemala/Desmodium intortum |
39.7 |
20.6 |
13.7 |
12.8 |
12.7 |
|
Guatemala/Pueraria phaseoloides |
26.3 |
12.2 |
13.7 |
11.0 |
12.0 |
|
Setaria/Neonotonia wightii |
32.2 |
15.7 |
10.3 |
8.0 |
12.8 |
|
Setaria/Desmodium uncinatum |
27.3 |
15.0 |
9.2 |
10.3 |
13.1 |
|
Setaria/Desmodium intortum |
30.6 |
21.0 |
10.3 |
9.2 |
18.5 |
|
Setaria/Pueraria phaseoloides |
23.7 |
14.2 |
9.4 |
10.6 |
13.6 |
Source: Lugenja 1979.
Current research work going on in Hai District has indicated that baling of these crop residues is beneficial and economical as it reduces bulk and greatly facilitates transport and storage. Use of hand operated hay binders has been proposed as a possible and probably more appropriate technology for smallholder dairy farmers.
Bean-haulm chaff is a product which appears to have promising potential, particularly if mixed with molasses. Appreciable amounts of this product are produced in West Kilimanjaro area, but again transport limits utilization.
Large quantities of barley and wheat straw are also produced in the West Kilimanjaro area, but due to the distance to the user sites, these are simply burnt.
Where transport is not a limiting factor, farmers make use of all the crop residues produced on their farms, and occasionally this may be supplemented by purchases from other farmers. All the crop residues are fed without any form of chemical treatments. Although considerable work has been done in Tanzania and elsewhere on upgrading the nutritive value of crop residues by means of chemical, these have become prohibitively expensive and their supply extremely erratic. For the time being the most appropriate way of improving the feed values of these crop residues is to supplement them with these nutrients known to be most limiting.
Agro-Industrial By-Products
These can be divided into two main categories: the milling by-products of cereals and the by-products of oilseed industries. The milling byproducts commonly used in Kilimanjaro are maize bran, wheat pollard, wheat bran and rice polishings. The supply of these is, however, directly related to the production of the respective cereals. Since the production of cereals for human food is generally inadequate, the production of the cereal by-products for animal feeding is also in short supply. The limited amounts produced are available to the farmers sporadically and at high prices. When utilized for feeding these by-products are fed straight without mixing them with other ingredients and are generally fed only to lactating cows during milking times.
Although appreciable quantities of oilseed cake and particularly cotton-seed cake, are produced in Tanzania, very limited amounts are utilized by smallholder farms. Most oilseed cakes are produced in places distant from Kilimanjaro, and this leads to thigh transport costs. As with the cereal by-products, only limited amounts of oilseed cakes (mostly cotton-seed cake) are utilized by dairy farmers in Kilimanjaro.
Molasses, which is produced by a sugar-cane processing plant about 20 km south of Moshi town, has been used extensively for feeding livestock in Kilimanjaro area rather than elsewhere in the country. Until recently, however, use of this product was limited to well-to-do farmers, particularly those with transport. A distribution network has now been established for this product through the FAO/UNDP Dairy Development Project for Arusha and Kilimanjaro areas. Through this project, a small plant for mixing urea and molasses has been constructed at the sugar factory which produces molasses with 3% urea.
Collection centres have been constructed in selected villages where 10,000 litres of molasses can be stored and from which farmers can then purchase their requirements. Tanker loads are regularly delivered to these centres on request from the farmers. Plans have also been worked out to develop the molasses/urea-receiving centres into distribution centres for other inputs such as cereal by-products and oil cakes.
Other Feedstuffs
Traditionally banana pseudostems, banana leaves and banana peelings are perhaps the most important feed resource for livestock keepers in Kilimanjaro area. As is evident from Table 3, bananas play an important role not only as a staple food for the local people, but also as a reliable and important feed resource. Their low nutritive value notwithstanding, banana pseudostems and/or banana leaves are always mixed with other forage and the chopped pseudostems aid in moistening dry roughages such as maize stover, and thereby apparently increasing feed intake. Occasionally "Magadi" salt is sprinkled on the copped pseudostems and banana peelings to increase intake. Farmers do realise the low feeding value of banana pseudostems, but, on the other hand, they regard this as a reliable feed resource that is readily available whenever supplies of other forages becomes short.
Brewers waste is obtained from the Arusha and Moshi breweries, but the supply of this product is far outstripped by demand. Only a few farmers, particularly those with transport and 'contacts', are able to use this product for feeding their dairy cattle.
Table 3. Land-use categories in Kilimanjaro Region
|
Crop
|
Moshi District |
Pare District |
Region |
|||
|
hax 1,000 |
% |
hax 1,000 |
% |
hax 1,000 |
% |
|
|
Coffee/banana |
124.4 |
68.5 |
10.8 |
16.6 |
135.3 |
54.7 |
|
Maize |
21.3 |
11.7 |
14.3 |
21.8 |
35.6 |
14.4 |
|
Maize/beans |
30.4 |
16.7 |
3.1 |
4.7 |
33.5 |
13.6 |
|
Paddy |
1.4 |
1.8 |
16.9 |
23.9 |
18.3 |
7.4 |
|
Fallow |
0 |
0 |
12.4 |
18.9 |
12.4 |
5.0 |
|
Bananas |
3.5 |
1.9 |
2.8 |
4.3 |
6.3 |
2.5 |
|
Cotton |
0.5 |
0.3 |
2.6 |
3.9 |
3.1 |
1.3 |
|
Cassava |
0.1 |
0.1 |
2.5 |
3.9 |
2.6 |
1.1 |
|
Total |
181.7 |
100.0 |
65.4 |
100.0 |
247.1 |
100.0 |
Source: Mlambiti, Edelsten and Colyer 1982.
Farmers in Kilimanjaro and Arusha areas have a keen interest in dairy farming, perhaps more than any other area in the country. Due to land scarcity, however, feed resources are very limited. The productivity of the established pastures could be increased by applying proper agronomical practices, including application of manure/fertilizer, irrigation, and the inclusion of suitable legume species. Improvement or better utilization of crop residues through handling and transportation, and supplementing for deficient nutrients, could greatly increase feed supply and productivity. Organized markets and distribution networks for molasses and other concentrate feeds will facilitate input supply to farmers and increase productivity.
Lugenja, M.M.S. (1979). Evaluation of pasture grasses and legume mixtures in northern Tanzania. Proceedings of the Tanzania Society of Animal Production 6: pp. 181-199.
Ministry of Agriculture. (1978). Livestock Census, 1978. Ministry of Agriculture, Dar es Salaam.
Mlambiti, M.E., Edelsten, P. and Colyer, D. (1982). Economic analysis of the traditional farming systems of the Kilimanjaro region Tanzania. IAF Publication No. 85, West Virginia University, U.S.A.
Naveh, Z. and Anderson, G.P. (1966). Introduction and selection of promising pasture plants for the Arusha and Kilimanjaro regions of northern Tanzania. I. Problems of pasture research and development. East African Agriculture & Forestry Journal 32: pp. 41-44.
Naveh, Z. and Anderson, G.P. (1967). Promising pasture plants for northern Tanzania. IV. Legumes, grasses and grass legume mixtures. East African Agriculture & Forestry Journal 32: pp. 282-304.
Urio, N.A. and Mlay, G.I. (1984). Progress report on diagnostic survey among smallholder dairy farmers in Hai district Tanzania. IDRC Project file No. 3-P-82-8085. Dairy Feeding Systems (Tanzania).
Welsch, D.E. (1965). Response to economic incentive by Mbakaliki rice farmers in eastern Nigeria. Journal of Farm Economics 47: pp. 900-914
