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Women’s employment in agrifood systems

Background paper for The status of women in agrifood systems








Costa, V., Piedrahita, N., Mane, E., Davis, B., Slavchevska, V. & Gurbuzer, Y. 2023. Women’s employment in agrifood systems  Background paper for The status of women in agrifood systems. Rome, FAO.



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    While gender pay gaps in higher-income countries have been extensively studied, less information is available about the status of the gender pay gap in lower-middle-income countries (LMICs). This study provides new empirical estimates of the gender pay gap in agricultural and non-agricultural wage employment across a sample of ten LMICs covering multiple regions. The Kitagawa–Oaxaca–Blinder decomposition approach is used to unpack the factors that explain the pay gap across the sample of countries. The analysis shows large and significant gender gaps in pay in both agricultural and non-agricultural wage employment. Across the sample, the gender wage gap in favour of men is on average 18.4 percent in agricultural wage employment and 15.1 percent in the non-agricultural sector (unweighted means). The unexplained part of the gap, which is associated with discrimination and other unobservable factors such as skills, preferences or social norms, is the largest contributor to the wage gap in both sectors. However, differences in education, sector of employment and access to full-time employment also contribute to the gap. This background paper was prepared to inform Chapter 2 of FAO’s report on The status of women in agrifood systems: https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/CC5060EN .
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    This paper provides empirical microlevel evidence on the gendered impacts of armed conflict on economic activity in agriculture and other sectors, combining large-N sex-disaggregated survey data with temporally and spatially disaggregated conflict event data from 29 African countries. We find that local conflict exposure is only weakly related to labour-force participation, but strongly reduces the total number of hours worked and increases engagement in the agricultural sector. These net impacts exist for both men and women. However, the reduction in hours worked is significantly greater among men, while the increase in agricultural activity is significantly greater among women. In the longer term, impacts of conflict on employment two years later are stronger when no more conflict ensues than if further conflict occurs, challenging the widespread idea of one-off conflict shocks fading away over time and suggesting that labour markets adapt to and absorb lasting conflict situations. Different types of conflict event have qualitatively similar impacts, which are strongest for explosions, such as from air strikes or landmines. Overall, our findings underline that armed conflict entails structural economic, social and institutional change, which creates complex, gendered impacts on economic activity. This background paper was prepared to inform Chapter 5 of FAO’s report on The status of women in agrifood systems https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/CC5060EN
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    We document the evolving trends in sectoral composition of Africa’s workforce, with particular attention to youth and rural/urban areas using nationally representative data from nine countries. Trends are similar when examining employment in terms of counts of jobs vs. full-time equivalents, but the share of the workforce in non-farm employment is considerably higher using the latter measure. Employment trends observed for the youth are also remarkably similar to that of the total working-age po pulation, regardless of whether we define youth as between 15-24 or 15-35 years of age. While acknowledging variability across countries, we generally observe a sharp exit of labor from farming to off-farm activities in the last decade indicative of the economic transformation underway in the region. The pace of labor exit from farming is more pronounced in countries that experienced relatively strong agricultural productivity growth. There is a corresponding rapid percentage growth in employmen t shares in the off-farm sectors both within the agri-food system and the non-farm sector. However, the off-farm segment of the agri-food system is particularly growing from an initial low base and hence will not generate as many new jobs as farming and the non-farm sector. Despite its declining employment share, farming remains the single largest employer and extremely important for livelihoods and economic growth due to its strong linkages with other sectors. Strategies that effectively raise the returns to labor in farming will be thus be crucial to building broad-based and inclusive economic growth and fostering successful economic transformation.

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