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DocumentWage Inequality in International Perspective: Effects of Location, Sector, and Gender 2009
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No results found.This paper uses the well-known Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition technique to understand the determinants of wage-gaps between men and women, between urban and rural workers, and between those employed in the rural agricultural versus the rural non-agricultural sectors, for the 14 developing and transition economies in the RIGA-L dataset. The unexplained male-female wage gaps (i.e. the gaps that remain after controlling for a host of observable characteristics of the job and the worker) provide esti mates of labor market discrimination against women that are consistent with prior estimates from other countries, and are generally similar in rural and urban areas. We argue that countries with large unexplained urban-rural gaps, such Tajikistan and Malawi, are those in which rural to urban migration is likely to persist even in face of high urban unemployment rates. Furthermore, we find that large unexplained wage gaps in favor of non-farm employment, versus paid labor in farming, exist in T ajikistan (53%), Ecuador (44%), Nepal (36%), Nicaragua (32%), and Nigeria (30%); these would then appear to be the countries for which a shift of existing workers, with their current attributes, from the farm to the non-farm sector would have the largest impact on rural incomes. -
BookletGender pay gaps among agricultural and non-agricultural wage workers: a cross-country examination
Background paper for The status of women in agrifood systems
2023Also available in:
No results found.While gender pay gaps in higher-income countries have been extensively studied, less information is available about the status of the gender pay gap in lower-middle-income countries (LMICs). This study provides new empirical estimates of the gender pay gap in agricultural and non-agricultural wage employment across a sample of ten LMICs covering multiple regions. The Kitagawa–Oaxaca–Blinder decomposition approach is used to unpack the factors that explain the pay gap across the sample of countries. The analysis shows large and significant gender gaps in pay in both agricultural and non-agricultural wage employment. Across the sample, the gender wage gap in favour of men is on average 18.4 percent in agricultural wage employment and 15.1 percent in the non-agricultural sector (unweighted means). The unexplained part of the gap, which is associated with discrimination and other unobservable factors such as skills, preferences or social norms, is the largest contributor to the wage gap in both sectors. However, differences in education, sector of employment and access to full-time employment also contribute to the gap. This background paper was prepared to inform Chapter 2 of FAO’s report on The status of women in agrifood systems: https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/CC5060EN . -
Book (stand-alone)Gender differences in assets 2011
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No results found.Agriculture can be an important engine of growth and poverty reduction. But the sector is underperforming in many countries in part because women, who are often a crucial resource in agriculture and the rural economy, face constraints that reduce their productivity. In this paper we document the gender gap in access to and ownership of most inputs, asset and services important for agricultural activities. We focus in particular on education, land, livestock, financial services, modern inputs, in formation and extension and labour. Across assets and inputs women are disadvantaged. The gap in education has narrowed over the last decades but substantial gaps remain in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. For land, the key farm household asset, there are significant gender differences in access to land across regions. Moreover female-headed households also typically operate smaller land holdings than male-headed households, across regions. There are also significant and systematic gender diff erences with regard to livestock, financial services, modern inputs, information and extension and labour. Gender differences in assets are generally interlinked, for example when female farmers have lower levels of technology this is due to their having less access to land, less access to labour and less access to extension services, not their sex. This also helps explain why women farmers do not necessarily benefit from access to extension services, as some studies have found. The implication of this is that selective interventions are unlikely to be effective.
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