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Report of the expert meeting on food safety for seaweed – Current status and future perspectives

Rome, 28–29 0ctober 2021












FAO and WHO. 2022. Report of the expert meeting on food safety for seaweed – Current status and future perspectives. Rome, 28–29 0ctober 2021. Food Safety and Quality Series No. 13. Rome.




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    The increasing global population needs to source food from the ocean, which is a much greater area than the land. The ocean is rich with diversified flora and fauna, and both are sources of proteins, vitamins, minerals, phytohormones, and bioactive compounds. Thousands of species of macroalgae (seaweed) dominate the vegetation of the seafloor from the intertidal to the subtidal zone. The domestication of several economically important seaweed such as Saccharina, Undaria and Pyropia in China, Japan and the Republic of Korea, and Kappaphycus and Eucheuma in Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines and the United Republic of Tanzania led to the intensive commercial cultivation of these seaweeds. Except for the United Republic of Tanzania, the commercial farming of seaweed, both temperate and tropical species, is centred in Asia. Despite the presence of several economically important seaweeds outside Asia, commercial farming is practised only in a few of non-Asian countries. These include Chile for Gracilaria and Macrocystis (Buschmann et al., 2001); France for Palmaria palmata, Porphyra umbilicalis and Undaria pinnatifida (Netalgae); and Canada for Saccharina latissima in integrated multi-trophic aquaculture (IMTA) (Chopin et al., 2013) and Chondrus crispus. Trial cultivation of Saccharina spp. and P. palmata is now taking place in Western Europe. Seaweeds are farmed mainly for food such as sea vegetables and food ingredients (Bixler and Porse, 2011), as well as feed (Wilke et al., 2015; Norambuena et al., 2015). However, there is increasing interest in their use for biorefinery products that require a vast amount of biomass which must be farmed.
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    International trade has been the main driving factor for the rapid growth of the bivalve mollusc production industry during the last six decades, growing from nearly one million tonnes in 1950 to 16.1 million tonnes in 2015. In recognition of the extensive trade of this commodity, the Codex Alimentarius Commission has developed a Standard for Live and Raw Bivalve Molluscs as well as guidance in the Codex Code of Practice for Fish and Fishery Products on the steps needed to be taken at all stages of the food chain in order to produce a product that meets the Codex Standard. However, to facilitate implementation of the Codex guidance, countries identified the need for more information on how to implement Codex guidance in their specific context and specifically how to establish and monitor a bivalve mollusc growing area. This FAO/WHO Technical Guidance for the Development of the Growing Area Aspects of Bivalve Mollusc Sanitation Programmes aims to address that need. The focus of the guidance is the primary production of molluscs for consumption as live or raw bivalves and in particular how to manage microbiological hazards at this stage. Acknowledging that managing chemical hazards, toxin phytoplankton, and biotoxins also presents big challenges, reference has also been provided to relevant Codex standards and other international guidance. The guidance was developed from a technical and scientific perspective and using a risk-based approach. It has been driven by the intent and experience of existing programmes, rather than the details of these programmes, and in line with the requirements of the Codex Code of Practice. The guidance is primarily aimed at the authorities responsible for the development, implementation, and application of a bivalve mollusc sanitation programme, while highlighting the collaboration and agreements required between different partners including local authorities, regulatory agencies, and laboratories to implement such a programme.
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    World bivalve molluscs production (capture + aquaculture) has been increasing substantially in the last fifty years, going from nearly one million tonnes in 1950 to about 15 million tonnes in 2012. Being filter feeders, bivalves utilise natural plankton and detritus as feed and do not require artificial feeds. But this filter feeding nature is also the reason for the requirement of strict environmental hygiene to produce bivalves safe for human consumption. They tend to concentrate microorganism s, toxins and chemicals from the environment and therefore, their safety management requires stringent sanitary measures to ensure consumer protection. Following the request of Codex Committee on Fish and Fishery Products (CCFFP), FAO/WHO agreed to develop a technical document on the subject of Toxicity Equivalency Factors (TEFs) for marine biotoxins. This document is of high importance for food safety managers in member countries of both FAO and WHO.

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