| Nutritionist | Aquaculturist | |
| BOTSWANA: | Ms Segametsi Maruapula | Mr T.G. Mmopelwa |
| Family Health Division | Fisheries Division | |
| Ministry of Health | Ministry of Agriculture | |
| LESOTHO: | Ms M. Matete | Ms S. Mofolo |
| Chief Nutrition Officer | Fisheries Research Officer | |
| Ministry of Agriculture | Ministry of Agriculture | |
| MALWAI: | Ms R.B. Ayaode | Mr V.O. Msisika |
| Ministry of Agriculture | Department of Fisheries | |
Ministry of Forests and Natural Resources | ||
| MOZAMBIQUE | Ms M. do Carmo Carrilho | |
| Department of Fish Culture | ||
| Ministry of Agriculture | ||
| SWAZILAND: | Ms Juliet Aphane | Mr Hohannes Msibi |
| Home Economics Section | Fisheries Section | |
| Ministry of Agriculture | ||
| TANZANIA | Dr Alex C. Mosha | Mr Raphael Lema |
Tanzania Food and Nutrition Centre | Fisheries Division | |
Ministry of Lands, Natural Resources and Tourism | ||
| ZAMBIA: | Ms Freda Luhila | Mr Vivian Kanondo |
National Food and Nutrition Commission | Department of Fisheries | |
| ZIMBABWE | Ms L. Mushonga | Ms Tambara |
| Chief Dietician | Mr I. Beatty | |
| Ministry of Health | Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism | |
| NORWAY: | Ms Asbjorn Tandberg | |
| Ms Matilda Steiner-Asiedu | ||
| ICLARM: | Mr J.D. Balarin, Team Leader, ICLARM, Malwai | |
| NORAD: | Mr Alan Brooks | |
| FAO: | ||
ALCOM | Mr Arne Andreasson, Project Manager | |
| Mr Peter van der Heijden, Aquaculturist | ||
| Ms Joanna van der Schoot, Socio-economist | ||
Rome | Mr D. James | |
| Mr B. Thompson | ||
by T G Mmopelwa, Fisheries Division, Ministry of Agriculture and S Maruapula, Family Health Division, Ministry of Health.
INTRODUCTION
Botswana is a landlocked country of 52,000 sq km, some 1,000 m above sea level. The Kalahari desert comprises two-thirds of Botswana's land area. The population density is highest in the east with the milder climate and more fertile soils.
The climate is also characterised by high diurnal temperatures which fall by more than 10°C at night. Frost may occur between June – August.
The country's major fishing ground is the Okavango delta in the North West, into which 10.5 million cu ft of water flows annually. Because of the high evapotranspiration rate, little water feeds Lake Ngami, which has been dry since 1984.
Productive fishing also occurs in the Kwando Chobe Linyati system, along the border with Caprivi and Zambia. This includes Lake Liambezi which dried out in 1985.
The Limpopo river, which forms part of the border with South Africa, is the only perennial river in the country.
Thus, because of climate and recent droughts, fisheries development is a recent effort and aquaculture is relatively unknown in Botswana.
Animal husbandry is an important economic activity and livestock supplies most of the animal protein and nearly a third of total protein, in a mealie meal based diet. Fish supplies about 8–10% animal protein and 1% of total dietary protein.
AQUACULTURE AND FISH SUPPLY
Status of Aquaculture
The establishment of a technical and extension service unit in 1967 initiated fisheries development in Botswana. The policy successfully emphasised the fishery resources of natural aquatic systems. The concept of fish farming gained support in the last 2–3 years as the private sector expressed interest. As a first step to meet the need, a professional specialist was being recruited at the time of writing. The few individuals with freehold fish farms are not monitored. However, small reservoirs, for livestock or irrigation, are stocked for domestic supply. Some fry is imported from South Africa. One tourist operator has a few tilapia floating cages at Guma lagoon in the Okavango delta. A private company will begin commercial production of tilapia at Francistown.
Capture Fisheries
About 850–1000 fishermen produced an annual average of 1,400 metric tons in 1984–85. Because of the seasonality of fish, water supply, employment and agriculture, some fishermen are nomadic. Catches in nomadic camps are difficult to record, not least because part of the catch is for domestic consumption; some is sold or bartered for other foods, locally. The largest cash market is provided by the Food Resources Department. As part of a national food strategy, the government has allocated increasing funds since 1980/81 for purchasing dried salted fish. Since 1983/84 an annual average of 207 metric tons has been distributed to schools and clinics in Ngamiland (for logistic reasons).
Fish Imports and Exports
In 1984–87, average annual fish imports were 60% higher than in 1980–83. Prepared fish (with crustaceans and molluscs) nearly doubled to an average annual volume of 908, 149 kg, 20 times the weight of preserved and double the weight of fresh fish imports. This suggests that past resistance to fish may be attributed to problems of supply and distribution. Over the period, 1980–87, fish exports have been very variable but generally small in quantity, with dramatically increased exports of ‘prepared fish’ in 1987.
Fish Consumption
Estimated at 2kg per capita in 1981, fish consumption has increased to more than 3kg, contributing about 1% to total and 8–10% animal protein supply, since demonstrations at fairs and schools. Regional differences occur: thus Ngamiland has a higher fish consumption than Kgalagadi, for example. Aquaculture may make a significant difference if small dams in the densely populated North East were put into production.
NUTRITIONAL STATUS IN BOTSWANA
National nutrition status is assessed using the National Nutrition Surveillance System set up in 1978 at health centres. Data on the weight-for-age of < 5year olds is collected monthly. In January 1989, the average prevalence of malnutrition was 15%, varying regionally from 7.4%–27.8%. Other nutritionally vulnerable groups include nursing mothers, pregnant women, the destitute, those in remote areas, the tuberculous and primary school children.
ADMINISTRATION, POLICIES AND DEVELOPMENT PLANS
Aquaculture
This is the responsibility of the Fisheries Unit, a section in the Animal Production Division of the Department of Agricultural Field Services. A specialist officer is being sought to take responsibility for aquaculture and to develop an aquacultural programme for the country. Initial activities will emphasize private sector involvement among individuals and or companies able to minimize risks by diversification. In parallel, a well organized extension service should be designed to promote aquaculture in the poorer sectors of the community.
Emphasis should not only be placed on immediate monetary gains, but on the socio-economic returns and the improvement of the quality of life in rural areas.
An Aquaculture for Local Community (ALCOM) development programme intends to introduce fish production into some 250 small dams scattered in the eastern region. The programme is presently in the preparatory phase, involving field studies to select potential pilot project sites.
Nutrition
The Food and Nutrition Unit is a component of the Primary Health Care Department in the Family Health Division (together with the Expanded Programme on Immunizations/Control of Diarrheal Disease Unit, Health Education and Maternal Child Health/Family Planning Unit).
The objectives of the Food and Nutrition Unit are:-
to conduct surveys of nutritional status, including the causes and effects of malnutrition;
to establish guidelines in food and nutrition;
to analyse the nutrient composition of foods and food products and advise on food preservation (as expertise and facilities become available);
to train all health workers in nutrition;
to develop strategies and programmes to reduce malnutrition;
to assist in the formulation of nutrition policies;
to participate in long term strategies to deal with drought;
to incorporate nutrition education, planning and research into all levels of formal and non-formal education;
to liaise with other ministries and organisations to ensure effective coordination of nutrition programmes.
Presently, the Food and Nutrition Unit participates in 4 main programmes viz
Nutrition Education and Training to all basic and post-basic courses for health personnel and family welfare education; In service training for health workers, community leaders and community organisations.
Food Supplementation at primary schools and health clinics and nutrition rehabilitation centres for the nutritionally vulnerable and malnourished.
National Nutrition Surveillance of under 5 year olds at health centres.
Growth Monitoring and Promotion of preschool aged children and their parents.
RESEARCH, TRAINING AND EXTENSION
Aquaculture
A future aquacultural programme should select and prioritize research topics. Examples may include:- aquaculture techniques for areas short of water; harvesting techniques; fish nutrition, using available raw materials and integration with livestock.
Training programmes should consider farmers as well as extensionists. Development of facilities, can enhance practical training eg in hatchery management. An officer has been identified for diplomate training in aquaculture supported by NORAD.
Nutrition
Future studies will determine the prevalence of micronutrient deficiencies (of Vitamin A, Iron and Iodine).
The unit produces a wide range of materials and trains many health and other personnel. Through district nutrition officers, the unit liaises with Regional Health Education and other organisations and health and welfare workers to disseminate nutrition messages.
INSTITUTIONAL LINKS BETWEEN AQUACULTURE AND NUTRITION
In 1983 a National Food Strategy was adopted which encompasses food production, including fish resources, preservation, distribution, storage and monitoring to promote nutrition and self reliance. The Department of Food Resources, in the Ministry of Local Government, consolidated under the strategy, has the responsibility to liaise with other government organisations: to monitor the food and nutrition situation; forecast national food requirements and those of vulnerable groups; organise a system to procure and store food; and distribute food to areas affected by drought and nutritional deficiency. The National Food Strategy and Department of Food Resources will thus be crucial to the institutionalisation of links between aquaculture and nutrition.
REFERENCES
Government of Botswana:
1982/83 to 1987/88 Annual Reports, Animal Production Division Ministry of Agriculture.
Government of Botswana:
National Development Plan 1985–91, Ministry of Finance and Development Planning.
Norwegian Ministry of Development Cooperation (NORAD) 1985
Botswana Fisheries, Status and Development Strategies.
by Seipati Mofolo, Fisheries Research Officer and Makholu Matete, Chief Nutrition Officer, Ministry of Agriculture.
INTRODUCTION
Lesotho is a small, mountainous landlocked country with a population of 1.6 million, nearly half of whom are engaged in agriculture. On the grasslands, livestock rearing is important.
The staple food is a thick maize porridge (“papa”) consumed at all meals either with milk or relish made of green vegetables, meat or beans, or as a thin porridge. Maize or sorghum porridge may be plain or fermented. Bread is popular everywhere: baked at home in the rural areas or commercially in the towns. Pulse production fell nearly 3 fold between 1977–1987, which may account for the decline in consumption. Measures are being undertaken to introduce a high yielding pinto bean.
Milk and eggs, contribute most animal protein. As fresh milk is seasonally available to few households, most milk is processed: dried milk distributed through aid programmes; sterilized milk is retailed.
Breast feeding is universal. Weaning begins at about 3 months with nutritionally bulky porridges which contribute to inadequate food intake in weanlings. Flesh foods (introduced at 9 months) comprise mostly chicken or canned fish, lamb and beef being reserved for special occasions such as weddings (etc).
Cereal contributes most of the dietary protein; animal protein provides 18.8% of which fish protein comprises 7.7%.
The cool highlands contain yellow fish or holubi waters (Chondoma, 1984), suitable for brown and rainbow trout (Salmon trutta and Salmon Gairdneri, respectively).
The cold winters in the lowlands are unsuitable for some warm water fish like tilapias. Carp maturation to market weight (500g) takes 2 years because their growing season is limited to the 6–7 warm months.
Thus, the climate resulting from altitude and latitude, creates unique conditions for the types and locations for fish culture.
AQUACULTURE AND FISH SUPPLY
Aquaculture Status
Fish farming was introduced following surveys of fishery potential in the early 60's (Maar, 1965) and the establishment of the Fisheries Section in 1968. During the 1970's to early 1980's, fish production averaged 20 ton pa, falling in the late 1980's to 8.0 tons pa.
There are three production systems in Lesotho:
Rural Fish pond associations
There are 132 ponds of 0.05–0.4 ha each, covering 30 ha and involving 39 villages in the lowlands. Most were constructed by manual labour under food-for-work programmes and are now owned by groups of villages in fish farmers associations. Fish production involves carp monoculture with average yields of 800 ha pa. Attempts to introduce polyculture of common silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix), gras carp (Chenopharyngodon idella) and sharptooth catfish (Clarias gariepinus) are still experimental but results promise increased production.
Individual privately owned farms began in accordance with government policy to stimulate and encourage private sector investment in the production, processing and distribution of fish and ducks. Under this system, individuals have been encouraged to stock ponds, dams or reservoirs on their farms. The emphasis is on integrated agriculture-aquaculture farming systems of fish with small livestock and vegetables, currently employed by 10 farmers on 10 ha.
Some 20 ha of public reservoirs in the lowlands are recently being stocked seasonally for common access of people to fish freely at subsistence level; or through licensing, for sport or commerce.
Capture Fisheries are insignificant in Lesotho existing as sport, mainly of trout and yellow fish in mountain streams; and bass, catfish and carp in lowland reservoirs. An inventory is planned but neither is monitored nor managed to any significant extent.
Fish Imports and Exports
The bulk of fish consumed in Lesotho is imported almost all from South Africa, with a very small amount of processed salmon and tuna from overseas. Of the 1,027 and 1,096 metric tons of fish imported in 1983 and 1984 respectively, the largest category was canned fish (93, 81% respectively).
Fish Consumption
Almost everyone eats fish in one form or another, approximately 2 gm/person/day, on average. The rural population consumes mainly canned or dried fish with occasional fish from aquaculture, limited to a few lowland villages. Urban people who have access to fresh, frozen, and preserved fish, consume more fish than those in the remote rural areas. Aquaculture contributes less than 1% of total supply.
NUTRITIONAL STATUS OF BASOTHO
The first nutritional survey in 1965 by Munoz with WHO, revealed 30% underweight children, 15% with pellagra, particularly in the summer and 15% with goitre. The 1976 national survey showed that on average, children under five had gained 2cm in height and 1 kg in weight. However, 23% were anaemic and a fifth of the children < 5 years were stunted (<90% height-for-age) while 3% were wasted (<85% weight-for -height). Malnutrition was more prevalent among weanlings (6–12 months old) than sucklings (2–5 months). Goitre had fallen to 5% among mothers. Whereas 5% were underweight, 21% (40% in urban areas) mothers were obese.
From Catholic Relief Services growth monitoring data, Surnoff and Habicht reported that malnutrition increased to 35% in 1985 in 6–24 month olds, with seasonal peak in the lean agricultural period.
The National Health and Nutrition Survey begun last year has been completed which will provide information about nutritional status of under five year olds, correlated with feeding practices and socio-economic status.
ADMINISTRATION, POLICIES, DEVELOPMENT PLANS
Aquaculture
The Fisheries Section is headed by the Chief Fish Production Officer, who reports to the Director of the Department of Livestock Services of the Ministry of Agriculture, Cooperatives and Marketing. The section coordinates and implements all fisheries activities including aquaculture in 2 sections for cold and warm water fisheries respectively.
The government's policy to develop a small scale rural aquaculture has the following objectives:-
To increase the availability of low-cost high quality fish protein to the rural communities, to contribute towards the goal of food self-sufficiency and to increase rural incomes.
To develop and manage the lacustrine systems for sustainable fishery.
To stimulate and encourage the private sector to invest in the production, processing and distribution of fish and ducks, creating employment for both rural and urban communities.
To protect through management and legislation the endangered indigenous fish species and depleted fish stocks.
To encourage local participation in aquaculture planning development, management and water resource utilization in the overall context of rural development.
To stimulate the tourist industry by stocking the suitable streams with trout for sport fishery.
The strategy for further development of fish farming in Lesotho aims to increase the area, efficiency and profitability of fish farming.
Aquaculture projects
Ongoing: Fish-cum-duck
Planned: (1)
Support to Fisheries Section Ministry of Agriculture Cooperatives and Marketing.
Commercial Trout Rearing Project.
Development of a subsistence fishery at Katse Reservoir.
Nutrition
The nutrition programme in the Ministry of Agriculture began after the first national nutrition survey. The Nutrition Division, under the Department of Field Services, has its head office with a nutritionist and 3 home economics officers at Maseru. Ten Senior Home Economics Officers (SHEA) who oversee nutrition activities at district level, report to the District Agricultural Officer. There are 10–13 nutrition assistants, based in the villages, in each district, who report to the SHEA's.
There is a nutrition policy. The nutrition programme presently emphasises food production and income generation activities, with a participatory approach to promote rural development. The programme also entails activities to promote breast-feeding, good weaning practices and growth monitoring as an educational tool for mothers.
There is a need for a review of the policy and programmes in both Ministries of Agriculture and Health, to ensure close interdepartmental coordination for mutual success and continuity. Thus, decentralization to district level has occurred, however, the training of and resources available to SHEAs needs improvement.
The Nutrition Division promotes food security and the standard of living of rural household through activities which also increase protein supply such as dairy, indigenous and broiler chickens, egg and pig production, with some craft. Although not yet undertaken, fish production could be promoted among women's groups or institutions such as hospitals or schools which have lakes or ponds. This may replace protein as the food aid programme is phased out.
There are 4 main nutrition-and-development projects:
The Mopotu village development and food technology project for women, sponsored by UNIFEM, includes a health centre, other infrastructure, training, 7 aspects of home economics management, soil conservation, irrigation and appropriate technology.
The United Nations Volunteers in Community Development Project, sponsored by UNDP (Matatengha Mofata) includes food production, income generation, irrigation and training.
The Development of Rural Technologies Project sponsored by ILO (Berea-Pulane) undertakes activities in vegetable/tree planting, food preparation and processing and established a day care centre.
Ten districts still engage in activities initiated through a previously UNICEF sponsored project (Rural Basotho Women in Development) which include income generation, baking and food processing, and food production.
RESEARCH, TRAINING AND EXTENSION
Aquaculture
Research has so far performed the function of rapidly transferring existing aquaculture technology to Lesotho. The main areas have been in fertilization, manuring ponds, artificial propagation, feed formulation and integrated livestock-fish farming (Chondoma, 1986a).
Extension services involve short courses (1 week) for farm managers, usually based at farmers' training centres, to teach basic fish farm management and simple bookkeeping. Fisheries extension workers visit fish farmers associations or individual farms regularly.
Nutrition
Research will be needed to select fish species suitable for production and acceptable (carp is too bony) and to find acceptable methods of preparation to encourage Basotho to adopt fresh fish in their diets.
Initial needs assessments will need to identify women's or youth groups, schools or hospitals with access to dams or ponds; to initiate advocacy and promote the concepts of aquaculture and nutrition, before pilot projects can begin.
Training will be needed, and extension aids which include nutrition education, fish preparation and cooking will have to be developed.
AQUACULTURE AND NUTRITION LINKS
A link between Fisheries and Nutrition institutions will have to be established to fulfil the research and activities envisaged.
CONSTRAINTS
Too few nutrition staff who lack training in aquaculture in particular, are available to implement fully the policies and plans for nutrition and development.
REFERENCES
Bureau of Statistics. 1987. Statistical Year Book. Lesotho Government Printers, Maseru, Lesotho.
Chondoma, E C. 1986a. The Status of Aquaculture in Lesotho. SADCC Regional Aquaculture Workshop, Kariba, Zimbabwe. October 1986.
Chondoma, E C. 1988. National Review for Aquaculture Development in Africa. 19 Lesotho FAO Fish Circ, (770.19).
Fisheries. 1986–1988. Fisheries Annual Reports. Fisheries Section Ministry of Agriculture Cooperatives and Marketing. Maseru, Lesotho.
Lesotho Agricultural Situation Report. 1976/77–1986/87 Agriculture Planning, Ministry of Agriculture, Maseru, Lesotho.
Maar, A. 1965. A Report on the Fisheries Survey in Basutholand.
Surnoff, R and Habicht, J P. Prevalence of underweight children in Lesotho by age in winter and summer comparing pre-drought and drought years. CRS, Maseru, Lesotho.
UCLA/National University of Lesotho. 1976. The Kingdom of Lesotho National Nutrition Survey.
by O V Msiska and M R K Nyirenda, Department of Fisheries, Ministry of Forestry and Natural Resources and Mrs R B Ayoade, Food and Nutrition Unit, Ministry of Agriculture.
INTRODUCTION
Malawi is a small landlocked country with a population of 6.8 million, about 80% rural. About a fifth of the 119,000 km2 area comprises fresh water with Lake Malawi the largest lake. Agriculture and fishing are thus important means of livelihood. Fish is usually cheaper than meat, especially in the more productive south. “Chambo” tilapia (4 Oreochromis spp) which accounts for 20% of total fish production, is now overfished. Fish is eaten fresh, sundried or smoked. Popular sardine-like species probably account for half the total production (Kent and Josupeit, 1989).
Fish production averaged 75.5 tonnes in 1984–1988, some 12½% more than the average for 1978–1983. But, with population increasing at 3.1% pa, fish supply per capita has changed little (9.9kg in 1984–88 of 9.52 in 1978–1983).
The Malawi diet comprises 1–2 meals per day to which maize contributes most energy and protein. Animal foods contributed 8.6% of protein, 60% of which was fish (GOPA, 1987). Thus, fish farming has great potential for development, income and nutrition in Malawi.
AQUACULTURE AND FISH SUPPLY
Status
Data are few and of poor quality. However, Balarin undertook a consultancy for FAO which forms the basis of the synopsis below. An FAO Dam Inventory Survey is in progress. Small holdings and commercial estates produced about 100 tons, whereas dams and reservoirs produced 250 tonnes in 1985. Except for the FAO Chambo Project Unit, static pond water systems are employed to rear Tilapia rendalli, Oreochromis shiranus and Clarias gariepinus. Privately owned smallholdings yield 500–1,500 kg/ha whereas commercial/estate producers yield 2,500–4,000 kg/ha.
Extension services serve farmers with some 1,055 ponds in 5 districts, mainly in the south. Fish farming clubs have begun to emerge. A socioeconomic study funded by ICLARM is presently investigating fish farmers.
Projects
Since 1974, various agencies have funded projects to undertake: Estate fish farming research (Kasinthu: FAO/UNDP); Extension (Zomba: Oxfam; Mwanza; UNIFEF).
5 on-going projects include:
Polyculture of fish (Domasi: IDRC); Extension, research, development and training (Mzuzu/Domasi: EEC); Extension (Mulanje; ODA-BDDSA). Ntchila/Mpasa research (Domasi: IFS) and various small pond projects in the north and central regions, funded by FAO.
Projects are planned to examine cage culture and to research and develop microfisheries in small impoundments.
Aquaculture accounts for only about 1,000 tons pa (about 1%).
Capture Fisheries
Traditional fishing from non-motorized dugout canoes and plank boats accounts for 85% of all landings. Commercial fishing from motorized trawlers makes up most of the balance (Kent and Josupeit, 1989).
Imports/Exports
In the mid 1970's, fish ranked 12th among exports and still make a valuable contribution to export earnings (National Statistics Office, 1978). However, in 1984–88, an average of 113 tons were exported, nearly a tenth of the average volume in 1978–83. The decline in exports, is at least partly due to increased domestic demand.
Little fish (less than 200 tons pa since 1984) is imported for human consumption but almost a 1000 metric tons of fish meal is imported for livestock feed (Kent and Josupeit, 1989).
Fish Consumption
Average fish supply per head was 9.2 kg pa in Malawi, in the early 1980's, less than the 14.9kg available in early 70's (Kent and Josupeit, 1989).
NUTRITIONAL STATUS
A National Nutrition Sample Survey of Agriculture was conducted in 8 regions of children < 5 years old in the two seasons, before and after the harvest, in 1980/81. The National averages before the harvest showed less malnutrition, in terms of underweight (27.4%) and wasting (1.6%) than after the harvest (34.6% underweight and 2.8% wasting). Stunting was unaffected by season (56.4%, 56.3% respectively). The peak prevalence of wasting occurred in the Blantyre and Kasunga Agricultural Development Divisions among 12–23 month olds.
The weighed Household Food Consumption component of the 1979 pilot survey reported low energy (64–72% of needs), low fat (12% of energy) intakes, with low iron, Vitamin A and riboflavin intakes.
ADMINISTRATION, POLICIES, DEVELOPMENT PLANS
Aquaculture
All aspects of fisheries, aquaculture and capture fishing, are the responsibility of the Senior Fisheries Research Officer, with an establishment of 24 staff. Presently, 1 of the 3 Fisheries Research Officers in 3 units are in place, to each of whom, senior technical officers (3) technical officers (3) and technical assistants (15) report in turn.
They are charged with the goal “to promote aquaculture development with particular emphasis on the Northern and Central Regions” with immediate priority assigned to developing small ponds or catchments.
Nutrition
The Food Security and Nutrition Unit (FSNU) in the Economic Planning and Development Section of the Office of the President and Cabinet is responsible for coordinating and overseeing the information gathering and policy formulation and programme execution by various ministries and other institutions. It serves as secretariat for an Interministerial Food and Nutrition Committee which coordinates nutrition and related activities undertaken by governmental and non-governmental organisations.
Food and Nutrition Units are also situated in the Ministries of Health, Agriculture and Community Service (through the Home Economics Programme). Within the Ministry of Agriculture, the Food and Nutrition Unit, established in 1974–79, represents one of the six programme areas, the heads of which report to the Chief Agriculture Officer. Each (of 8) Agriculture Development Division has a programme manager, to whom report: Rural Development Project Officers (30) and in turn, Development Officers for each Extension Planning Area. At Section level, there are Field and Farm Home Assistants Nutrition (and other subject) specialists are confined to head office and thus have national responsibilities.
The policy aims to ensure a satisfactory nutritional status of small farmers, with particular reference to nutritionally vulnerable groups, by improving the availability and utilization of food.
Current programmes include
Nutrition Education and Training undertaken by In-servicing training for senior staff within the Agricultural Development Divisions, since 1986. To standardize nutrition messages for all extensionists, a handbook has been drafted (“Nutrition facts for Malawian families”). Efforts are made to ensure that male as well as female extensionists disseminate nutrition messages.
The Food and Nutrition Unit devised has responsibility for the nutrition components of curricule used at the National Resources College for pre service training.
A proposed independent nutrition communications unit has never had its full staff complement. The Programme Officer's functions have become subsumed within the FNU. A variety of visual aids have been produced, nevertheless.
Information gathering for all aspects of programme planning: to identify needs of population groups and specific areas; to monitor the implementation and evaluate the impact of nutrition and related programmes and projects. Collaboration with Ministry of Health and other institutions such as donors includes breastfeeding and nutrition surveys of drought-striken areas.
Nutrition Surveillance
In 1986, a pilot project in Mzuzu tested a model for a national nutrition information system which could incorporate nutrition into development programmes and plans; facilitate: advocacy, monitoring and evaluation and provide a timely warning of food shortages. In conjunction with the Interministerial Subcommittee on Nutrition, this project will be extended to Blantyre, once technical assistance and funding are finalised (with Cornel/UNICEF).
A pilot project for the “Prevention of Vitamin A Deficiency through Increased Horticultural Crop Production” which aims to combat Vitamin A deficiency in Ngabu, began in 1989.
Lack of manpower and funds have prevented the Nutrition Studies Unit within the Ministry of Agriculture from conducting its research programme.
AQUACULTURE AND NUTRITION LINKS
No institutional links exist presently, but could be accommodated through the Interministerial Food and Nutrition Committee which coordinates all nutrition related activities.
CONSTRAINTS
Presently, there is no coherent manpower strategy and career structure for nutritionists. Thus deployment of trained staff, filling existing posts, increasing the numbers of established technical posts and increasing the number of trainees all need attention if the many institutions and programmes are to function efficiently. A detailed proposal for resolving this problem is presently under consideration.
REFERENCES
GOPA. (1987). Malawi Fisheries Strategy Study. Report submitted to the Ministry of Forestry and Natural Resources. GOPA-Consultants, Federal Republic of Germany.
Kent, G and Josupeit, H. (1989). The contribution of Fisheries to alleviating Malnutrition in Southern Africa. FAO Fisheries Circular No 818. FIIU/C818.
National Statistics Office. (1978). Annual Statement of External Trade, 1974–76. Government Printer, Zambia.
by M B van der Merwe and Mrs M do Carmo Carrilho, Department of Fish Culture, Ministry of Agriculture.
INTRODUCTION
Mozambique occupies 802,000 sq km from the Ruvuma river in the north to beyond Delgoa Bay in the south. Drained by many major rivers such as the Zambezi, Sabe and Limpopo, it includes part of the Rift valley system of lakes, such as the Cabora Bassa Dam and shares Lake Niassa with Tanzania, all of which contribute to the great, still unexploited scope for inland fisheries and aquaculture. Maritime fishing is larger in scale and more important economically and in terms of present and potential production.
Agriculture, including fishing, remain major employers of the 13.4 million population. Beset by war and drought, output has declined so that food energy and protein availability are the lowest in SADCC (1,617 Kcals and 30g protein per caput per day in 1985; Kent and Josupheit, 1989).
Staple foods like maize and cassava contribute most dietary energy and protein. However fish is important in the diet, contributing a third of animal and 4.3% of total protein. As poor infrastructure impedes distribution, fish supply varies and may be too costly for many rural families. Thus aquaculture has important implications for nutritional and community development.
AQUACULTURE AND FISH SUPPLY
Status of Aquaculture
First introduced in 1952, aquaculture had spread to all 10 provinces by 1965. Between 1972–1984 fish culture had virtually ceased. A fish culture project - funded by MONAP, the Mozambique Nordic Agriculture Programme, began a revival which presently entails activities in 7 provinces, with more than 140 earth ponds of 0.2–13ha, 6 of which yielded more than 18.5 tonnes in 1988. Cooperatives (2), private (3) and state (3) farms, and fish culture projects (5) have mainly produced tilapia spp (Oreochromis mossambicus and Tilapia rendalli) and carp. Nile tilapia (O niloticus) and “red tilapia” were introduced in February 1989. Productivity ranges between 1500–8500 kg/ha/year. Although the private sector is most productive, yields have been below those of fish culture projects. Total freshwater fish catch has remained 5 tonnes for more than a decade.
Shrimps, mussels and brackish water fish culture are other planned aquaculture projects, the first of which is expected to begin at the end of 1989.
Capture Fisheries
Some 40–50,000 artisanal fishermen catch an estimated 40,000 tonnes of fish per year, half of which is for sale, the rest for domestic consumption. Inland fishery on the Cabora Bassa (3,000 tonnes) and Lake Niassa (2,000 tonnes) makes a small contribution to the total fish supply. The total catch of 16,538 tonnes doubled in 1984–1988 by comparison with 1979–1983 but appeared to have peaked in 1986, at nearly 20,000 tonnes. (Pescom National, 1987).
Imports/Exports
Total imports fell from an average of 22,840 tonnes in 1979–83 to 10,119 tonnes in 1984–88. Shrimp is the main export, to Japan and Spain, with more than 5,000 metric tonnes per annum earning some 40% of total export income (Kent and Josupheit, 1989).
Fish Consumption
Over the past decade, total fish supply tended to fall slightly as imports have declined and local production peaked (see 2 above). The difference in supply is associated with a change in consumption pattern from 47% frozen fish to 69% frozen fish, with fresh fish increasing concomitantly. In 1981 and 1987, respectively, average fish supply was 4.3 and 4.4kg/caput per annum, but varied greatly for example, more than tenfold greater in urban than rural, Maputo (12.2kg cf 0.7kg/caput per annum in 1987; Pescom National, 1987).
NUTRITIONAL STATUS
Since 1980 the country has faced a growing food deficit, and imported half its grain in 1987. In 1987, malnutrition affected about 20% of children in areas affected by drought and war, 4 fold more than in unaffected areas. Thus displaced persons and refugees are most affected by malnutrition. A 1988 survey revealed that regional prevalences of malnutrition ranged from 4.8 – 43.8% in the 39 villages surveyed, with an average prevalence of 12.3% (Ministry of Health, 1989). Growth faltering was detected in 1 in 6 children. Rapid urbanization, with low wages and lack of cultivable land, has placed citizens of Maputo and Tete at high risk of malnutrition too.
A neuropathy which occurs in Nampula province is associated with eating improperly prepared cassava.
ADMINISTRATION, POLICIES, DEVELOPMENT PLANS
Aquaculture
There are 2 divisions, one for fresh and another for salt water aquaculture.
Salt Water Aquaculture is administered by the Secretary of State for Fisheries with the Fisheries Research Institute as executing agency responsible for a few experiments laying the basis for shrimp farming.
Fresh Water Aquaculture is administered by the Fish Culture Department of the National Directorate of Livestock of the Ministry of Agriculture.
The larger, older section has more advanced policies and development plans. The first priority is training of skilled local personnel who can establish fish farms in each province. These farms will serve as demonstrations, with emphasis on integrated fish culture (fish cum pig or duck); for fingerling production; training sites for basic grade specialists and for extension programmes.
Presently, 4/6 projects are in operation with mussels in the experimental phase at The Fisheries Research Institute; 2 shrimp projects, one Nordic funded; a Nordic funded Tilapia project; A Tilapia carp project on 4 fish farms and one forthcoming commercial project of Tilapia hybrids.
Nutrition
In 1977, the Nutrition Section of the Ministry of Health was started to plan and implement a national programme for food and nutrition at a provincial and national level. In 1980, the coordinating Council for Preventing and Combatting Natural Disasters was established with a department of the same name as its executing agency, in the Ministry of Commerce.
Nutrition policy aims to reduce malnutrition in the vulnerable groups such as under five year olds, pregnant and nursing women (Ministry of Health, 1988; Intersectoral Organization of Alimentation and Health, 1987).
The Nutrition Section receives UNICEF and Italian (CSD/UCI Programme) support. (Ministry of Health, 1989).
RESEARCH, TRAINING AND EXTENSION
Aquaculture
Research is recent and conducted on a small scale into - mussel reproduction; fertilization of fish ponds with various livestock manures, cage culture of tilapia in ponds and sewage works.
Basic and intermediate levels of training are provided by the Department of Fish Culture annually with inservice training on provincial fish farms.
Provincial extension programmes first began in Maputo and Gaza provinces.
Nutrition
No data were presented on research but the Ministry of Health conducts national “Nutritional Inquiries”. A programme is proposed which will provide specialist training from basic to university levels and includes an extension component to be funded by UNICEF.
LINKS
Initial contacts have been made between nutrition and aquaculture personnel, which could become formalised links.
CONSTRAINTS
Lack of trained personnel in both nutrition and aquaculture.
The problems of dislocation and disruption caused by war and famine.
REFERENCES
Nutrition Sector, Ministry of Health. (1989). Boletim trimestral No 7. March 1989.
Nutrition Section, Ministry of Health. (1988). Action Programme for 1989. (27/12/1988).
Ministry of Health. (1987). Inter-sectoral Organization of Alimentation and Health. March 1987.
Ministry of Health. (1989). Project Summary 1041 CSD/UCI - Nutrition. 26/4/1989.
Pescom National (1987).
Kent, G and Josupheit, H. (1989). The Contribution of Fisheries to Alleviating Malnutrition in Southern Africa. FAO Fisheries Circular No 818. FIIU/C818.
by Mr H Msibi, Fisheries Section, and Ms J Aphane, Home Economics Section, Ministry of Agriculture.
INTRODUCTION
Swaziland is a small landlocked country of 17 thousand square kilometres drained by 2 major rivers which has a savanna climate and altitudes of 400–2000m above sea level. Agriculture and animal husbandry are the main sources of employment for the 0.73 million people.
Maize forms the staple and provides most energy but pulses (5%) and animal products (13.4%) make small contributions. Livestock contributes more than a third of total protein (34.4% in 1982–84). Fish plays a negligible role in the diet. Although food supply has grown throughout the 1980's, in 1986–87, agricultural production fell and the value of agricultural imports outstripped those of exports. Aquaculture may increase the modest potential of inland fisheries to contribute to nutrition, food self-sufficiency and development in Swaziland.
AQUACULTURE AND FOOD SUPPLY
Status of Aquaculture
At the end of 1988, there were 143 stocked ponds with a further 21 ready to be stocked. These ponds may be 200 sq metres (or smaller) in size and the individual farmers apply table left overs with commercial fertilizers. Presently the ponds have a productivity of 3.4 tonnes/ha/annum, and are thus mostly for subsistence, although surpluses may be sold.
Capture Fisheries
The emphasis has been on aquaculture so there are no data available about the status of capture fishing.
The main source is the Sand River Dam which has a full capacity size of 712 ha surface water, yielding about 108 tons per annum of fish.
Imports/Exports
Data on the magnitude of fish trade were unavailable. However, frozen and canned fish (mainly pilchards) are imported, particularly from South Africa, by hoteliers and retailers. Shrimp is also imported by hotels, from Mozambique.
Apart from some 500 kg of fish exported monthly from the Inyoni Yami Irrigation Scheme to South Africa, there are no fish exports.
Fish Consumption
Data for the late seventies and early eighties show per capita fish supply was 0.1 kg annually, presumably reflecting mainly urban consumption of canned or frozen fish (Kent and Josupheit, 1989).
NUTRITIONAL STATUS
In 1983–84, a national nutrition survey was conducted of under five year olds. Stunting (chronic malnutrition) was more common in rural (30%) than peri-urban areas (22%) and peaked (42%) among 6–24 month olds. Low parental education and low family income were important risk factors.
ADMINISTRATION, POLICIES AND DEVELOPMENT PLANS
Aquaculture
The Head of the Fisheries Section who reports to the Director of the Department of Agricultural Extension has responsibility for aquaculture.
As part of its Fourth National Development Plan, government policy is to encourage the rural community to dig family fish ponds and rear fish to raise nutritional standards. Government also encourages sport fishing and capture fisheries in the major dams.
In order to provide an adequate supply of fingerlings, priority has been given to rehabilitating the Nyetane Warm Water Fish Hatchery destroyed by a cyclone in 1984. Despite the E60,000 already spent, the funds available are insufficient for this task.
Nutrition
Nutrition is the responsibility of the Home Economics Section of the Ministry of Agriculture. Two nutritionists are Senior Home Economics Officers who report to the Principal Home Economics Officer at Headquarters. At regional level, there are 4 Home Economics Officers, to each of whom 5 Assistant Home Economics Officers report in the Extension Service.
There is no nutrition policy but the Ministry of Agriculture has a strong commitment to nutrition.
The National Nutrition Council, a legislated body, advises Cabinet on all matters pertaining to Nutrition. Membership of the Council consists of representatives from the Ministries of Health, Agriculture, Education and non-governmental organisations like Red Cross, Save the Children Fund, UNICEF, World Food Programme, etc. The Deputy Director of Agriculture is the Chairperson and the Minister of Health is responsible for Council matters.
Nutrition Programmes include:-
Household level food security surveillance system
Nutrition surveillance program, through clinic and community based growth monitoring.
Under these programmes, source projects are underway including one arising from the Swaziland National Nutrition Survey of 1983–84, the Project on the Promotion of Young Child Feeding. A follow up social marketing study laid the basis for a communication and training programme which began in 1983 and is due to end in 1990. A Household Food Security Survey and a community based growth monitoring programme are planned for 1989.
RESEARCH, TRAINING AND EXTENSION
Aquaculture
There are no research institutions in Swaziland for fisheries and aquaculture. The section relies on research reported from outside the country.
Initially aquaculture extension was done by the home economics section. Now aquaculture extension is conducted by general extension workers, who present problems with discipline.
Nutrition
Applied nutrition research is an integral part of the nutrition programmes described above.
Training activities include updating health workers from government and non-governmental organisations on the results of applied research, such as the National Nutrition Survey and in the use of new materials. Pre-service training is under consideration.
Nutrition extension work is done by home economists in the Ministry of Agriculture most of whom have a two year college diploma and only a few have a three year diploma in nutrition. The University of Swaziland offers courses in nutrition, into which aquaculture may be integrated.
LINKS
Formal institutional links between aquaculture and nutrition occur through the National Nutrition Council and by virtue of the fact that both sections are the responsibility of the Ministry of Agriculture.
CONSTRAINTS
Insufficient staff with advanced training, lack of funds and of a policy integrating nutrition considerations into aquaculture, constrain the integration of these two sectors.
REFERENCES
Kent, G and Josupheit, H. (1989). The Contribution of Fisheries to Alleviating Malnutrition in Southern Africa. FAO Circular No 818 FIIU/C818.
FAO. (1988). FAO Agriculture Series No 21.
FAO. (1987). The Fifth World Food Survey.
by Mr R Lema, Senior Aquaculturalist, Fisheries Division Ministry of Lands, Natural Resources and Tourism and Dr A C Mosha, Tanzania Food and Nutrition Centre.
INTRODUCTION
Tanzania comprises 945 thousand sq km with a lush belt of fertile highlands capped by a central plateau of exhausted land which straddles the great lakes of the Rift Valley shared with its neighbours; notably Lakes Victoria, Tanganyika and Malawi. Also drained by significant rivers Pangani, Kageraa, Rufiji and Ruvuma, the inland waters sustain much fresh water fishing activity.
Some 86% of the estimated 22.5 million people live in rural areas, mostly engaged in agricultural employment. Varying in climate, there are thus many ecologies with different staples; cereals, mainly maize, replacing the millets and sorghum; other starchy staples like cassava, and milk, among the nomadic Maasai. Droughts, persistent economic difficulties and war have constrained development and food production, especially of animal foods. Thus pulses and cereals provided more protein to which animal foods have contributed a smaller share (15.7% in 1984 and 25.1% in 1972) (FAO, 1988). Fish is an important dietary item which contributes 6.2% of total and 30.5% of animal protein intake, on average, but varies from high in marine and lake coastal districts, to low consumption deep inland, because of distribution problems. In this context, aquaculture has a significant role to play.
AQUACULTURE AND FISH SUPPLY
Status of Aquaculture
Aquaculture presently occurs at subsistence level in more than 5,000 earthen ponds of 0.1ha on average which produce 80kg each annually (400 tonnes) of Tilapia spp.
The ponds are owned by private individuals and a wide variety of institutions. Development has generally been slow.
Capture Fisheries
Some 6.5 thousand artisanal fishermen in more than 2 thousand fishing vessels landed an average annual catch of 263,557 tonnes in 1978–1987. In the last 3 years of this decade the catch exceeded 30,000 tonnes (a 30% increase). Some 15% of the catch was marine, the bulk coming from freshwaters.
Imports/Exports
Exports of fish and fish products rose to 1,663 tonnes in 1988, more than double the volume in the previous year, mostly prawns (77%) with much smaller amounts of other products like Beche-der-mer (8%) and sea shells (6.5%). Between 1980–85, imports averaged 360.6 tonnes, but varied substantially from year to year. Fish and fish products accounted for the bulk of the imports.
Fish Consumption
Average per caput fish consumption is 14.8kg annually but more is eaten near capture sources. The cost of processed or preserved fish prevents greater consumption inland. Presently, 0.12% of fish supply is contributed by aquaculture.
NUTRITIONAL STATUS
Over some 20 years, infant mortality has fallen but remains high at 120/thousand live births in 1980. Many (43%) young children were mildly-moderately undernourished in 1985, and 17% were significantly wasted in 1984. Protein-energy malnutrition, vitamin A deficiency, iron-deficiency anaemia, goitre and fluorosis are significant specific nutritional problems which have been detected in various districts. No national nutritional survey has been undertaken. Although most women breastfeed, the weaning diet is bulky, and this, compounding high rates of infections, is associated with malnutrition in 12–34 month olds (FAO, 1988).
ADMINISTRATION, POLICIES AND DEVELOPMENT PLANS
Aquaculture
The Director of Fisheries is responsible for the Fisheries Division in which the Fisheries Development Section is responsible for Aquaculture, under the Senior Aquaculturalist. Regional Fisheries Officers report to each Regional Development Director through the Regional Natural Resources Officer; similarly, there are District Fisheries Officers, under whom Division and Ward Fisheries Officers function.
Government policy seeks to develop aquaculture for food production and income generation in the rural areas. Further aims include establishing close international links with Aquaculture Organizations and to establish a information system to aid development planning.
There is a Five Year Development Plan, including 5 phases viz Phases I and II: the Completion of the National Aquaculture Centre; Phase III: Intensive breeding and production of quality seed of indigenous and exotic species for distribution to farmers; Phase IV: Popularization of integrated systems (fish with ducks/pigs); commercial fingerling production; with pilot scale livestock, fish, vegetable production on farms; Phase V: Establishment of Saltwater Aquaculture Projects.
7 projects have been completed at various sites, while one is ongoing at Morogoro National Aquaculture Centre.
Nutrition
In 1973, the Tanzania Food and Nutrition Centre (TFNC) was established by parliament. TFNC comprises 5 departments: Food Science and Technology, Nutrition Education and Training and Clinical Nutrition Services, supported by laboratory and library services. Particularly relevant programmes include the information gathering and integrated village/development planning activities; food products development eg a weaning food incorporating fish powder; In service training for extension staff in all ministries, including fisheries and curriculum development for nutrition training pre or in-service with government at the universities at Dar-es-Salaam and Morogoro; and treatment and prevention of goitre, in which marine food plays an important role.
Research and development occur in each department influencing grass roots, governmental and non-governmental institutions through extension.
In 1979 a Food and Nutrition Policy was formulated which involved all ministries and other institutions. A revised document will shortly be published, which emphasizes - Intersectoral coordination and collaboration, and integration; self-sufficiency in food production, food security and an adequate balanced diet, including fish (among other foods). Thus, all annual Government plans will have nutrition inputs. Including those of Health, Agriculture and Livestock; Forestry, Fisheries and Wild Life; The National Milling Corporation and Tanzanian Fisheries Corporation.
LINKS
There are no formal links between Nutrition and Aquaculture although there are many links and joint activities with Fisheries which could be extended and strengthened.
CONSTRAINTS
Improved coordination among the various institutions could strengthen the incorporation of nutrition objectives into aquaculture.
REFERENCES
Kent, G and Josupheit, H. (1989). The Contribution of Fisheries to Alleviating Malnutrition in Southern Africa. FAO Fisheries Circular No 818. FIIU/C818.
FAO. (1988). ESN-Nutrition Country Profile.
by Mr V Kanondo, Department of Fisheries and Ms Freda Luhila, National Food and Nutrition Commission.
INTRODUCTION
Zambia occupies 753 thousand square kilometres on the south-central plateau, 1,000–2,000m above sea level. It is richly endowed with perennial streams and rivers including the Zambesi, Kafue and Luangwa rivers, which form substantial bodies of fresh water, notably the swamps (Bangwelu and Lukanga) and lakes (Tanganyika, Mweru-Luapula, Mwere-Wa-Ntipa and Kariba) where the fish resources are vigorously exploited (Kent and Josupheit, 1989).
Although mining still makes a large contribution to the economy, with the fall of copper prices and in copper output, agriculture has made increasing contributions and still represents the major employment for the 6.4 million Zambians (FAO, 1988).
Fish, fresh or dried, as kapenta, contributes 5.6% of total protein and 29.1% of animal protein. Along with other relishes made from vegetables, insects, or meat, fish supplements nshima made from cereals particularly maize, or cassava.
Aquaculture is thus already strongly supported as a component of local community development and as a means to raise nutritional status.
AQUACULTURE AND FISH SUPPLY
Status of Aquaculture
Fish culture started in the fifties but meaningful developments only began in the 80's. Integrated fish farming occurs alongside pure fish culture, mostly on a small scale, in usually earthen ponds or, in conservation dams with only one race way on a commercial farm. Three species of “bream” reared most commonly are Tilapia andersonii, Oreochromis mechrochir and O rendaii, with a few Haplochronis and Serranochromis spp. The only common exotic species is Cyrprinus carpio.
In 1988, 2,226 artisanal fish farmers owning 5,657 ponds yielded 500 kg - 1.65 tonnes/ha/annum. Sixteen commercial fish farmers with 244 ponds with a total surface area of 83.3 ha produced 700 tonnes (about 5 tonnes/ha/annum, on average).
Most fish farms are privately owned by individuals with the majority in the North Western, Northern and the Copper-belt provinces (1,418, 731, 300 fish farmers respectively).
There are 10 large scale commercial farms in the Copper-belt, where, in 1986, a very large farm of 98 ha, with 472 ponds, was commissioned at Kansanshi.
Private voluntary organizations like the International Catholic Migration Commission (Icara II), alone or with support from the United Nations High Commission for Refugees and USAID, also undertake aquaculture activities (Kent and Josupheit, 1989).
Capture Fisheries
Artisanal fishermen use gill nets and dugout canoes to catch tiger fish and cichlids, mainly tilapias (“bream”). A variety of traditional methods are used on the flood plains.
On a commercial scale since 1980, on Lake Kariba, Kapenta have been fished from pontoon rigs with crews of 6 or more. Between 1984–1988, an annual average of 62,412 tonnes were caught, more than the average of 52,329 caught in 1978–1983.
Imports/Exports
Between 1980–1982, fish imports averaged 2,200 tonnes annually but fell substantially to an average of 381 tonnes between 1984–86. Most of the imports are Kapenta from Tanzania.
Records show negligible exports until 395 tonnes in 1986, more likely to reflect better record keeping than change in trade (with Zaire).
Fish Consumption
Between 1980–1988, average annual per capita fish consumption was 9.1kg, less than the 16 kg per capita reported for 1972, because output did not match the rise in the population. Urban populations consumed more, but their fish consumption also fell from 14.5kg in 1980 to 12kg in 1984. About 35% of fish is consumed fresh, 30% smoked, 25% sundried and the rest frozen (9%) or canned (10%).
Aquaculture contributes an average of 1.2% to annual fish consumption.
NUTRITIONAL STATUS
A National Nutrition Status Survey conducted between 1969–1962 found 23% of 0–4 year olds were severely or moderately underweight. The most severely affected provinces were in the North, East and Copperbelt provinces, where cassava was the staple or there were severe food shortages. Ten years later, in Chipata, underweight (< 80% of standard weight-for-age) was 5–41% in 6–60 month olds, higher in May and January than in September, and in rural than urban areas.
The most recent data from the National Nutrition Surveillance system for under 5 year olds, show that malnutrition persists with prevalences of 15–39%, highest in the northerly provinces, as previously reported. Seasonal variation in food availability and in disease burden (malaria and diarrhoea and peak labour output, appear to account for the pattern of undernutrition. Other problems include anaemia in children and pregnancy, Vitamin A deficiency in Luapula province and goitre in many parts of the country.
ADMINISTRATION, POLICIES AND DEVELOPMENT PLANS
Aquaculture
The Department of Fisheries, under a Director, and Deputy, comprises 4 divisions responsible for: Extension and Development, Training, Research and Fish Culture. The Chief Fish Culturist, oversees the work of a Senior Fish Culturist with Provincial Fish Culturists, to whom scouts and Assistant Fish Culturists report in turn.
The Fourth National Development Plan (1989–93) aims to:
improve marketing, handling and processing; encourage the production of exotic fish, and promote the export of aquarium fish.
To achieve these aims, a fishery industry coordination committee will be established. The supply of inputs and access to credit will be improved and research, extension and monitoring will be strengthened.
Three kinds of projects in progress presently include:
Fish Culture Development (FAO);
Northern Province Fishculture Development (NORAD);
An Aquaculture for Local Community Development project.
Forthcoming projects include:- establishing a National Aquaculture Centre and Fish culture projects in Western and Luapula provinces.
Nutrition
An act of parliament established the National Food and Nutrition Commission within the Ministry of Health in 1967. The staff comprise an Executive Director and an Assistant Executive Director, 2 Administrators, 2 Heads of Unit, 8 Nutritionists and 5 Provincial Nutrition Coordinators. The Commission is charged with improving the nutritional status of vulnerable groups, creating community awareness of nutrition, information gathering and dissemination, and the implementation and coordination of food and nutrition activities in food, agriculture and other relevant development programmes and plans. These functions are performed by the 4 technical units: Food and Nutrition Policy and Planning/Food Science and Technology, Nutrition Education, Public Health and Mass Communications.
Diplomate nutritionists are also employed by the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives as Agricultural Extension Officers and in the Nutrition Unit of the Ministry of Health.
There is no Food and Nutrition Policy. The Fourth National Development Plan however included specific nutritional and nutrition related objectives which included training and institution strengthening, promoting breast feeding, sound weaning practices especially foods protective against Vitamin A deficiency, in addition to the abovementioned objectives. In the Ministry of Agriculture, relevant objectives specified increases in the availability of and access to food, including improved production, processing and preservation.
In the Ministry of Higher Education, Science and Technology, the research capability of relevant institutions is to be strengthened (including NFNC).
Projects and programmes completed included:- the national food consumption survey; An IFPRI/RDSB/NFNC project on food production policies, marketing, technical change and nutritional status; a food strategy for Zambia; Revised Food Tables; Eye disease in Luapula; Maternal Nutrition and the outcome of pregnancy; Rapid Assessment of Nutritional Status. Incorporation of nutrition into aquaculture.
An equally wide variety of projects are in progress and planned, including the formation of a National Committee on Fish Culture and Human Nutrition; and the use of fish both in supplementary foods for vulnerable groups and in income generation for food security.
RESEARCH, TRAINING AND EXTENSION
Aquaculture
Little research is presently undertaken. Past efforts focused on identifying species suitable for culture. In order to support the ALCOM project demonstration methods which can be applied by artisans will need to be identified and tested. Such applied research occurs in the main centres of FAO fish culture development project, at Chilanga, Mukkera and Chipata.
There is a fish culture training centre at Mukkera for artisans. Professional training is obtained abroad.
There are 19 fish culture stations each of which conducts extension activities.
The University may establish a course, in collaboration with the Fisheries Department.
Nutrition
The Natural Resources Development College runs a three year Diploma Course where 179 Zambians have been trained in nutrition. Most diplomates are employed as agricultural extension officers. The curriculum is under review to incorporate an aquaculture component.
The University plans to establish a course in home economics with a large nutrition component.
Some 200 agricultural extension officers and nutrition diplomates conduct extension in nutrition at provincial and district levels, sometimes in conjunction with donors like SIDA, FAO, UNICEF, in projects.
Voluntary nutrition groups (33) carry out a variety of nutrition activities in 17 districts, coordinated by NFNC, as part of outreach.
LINKS
The National Committee on Aquaculture and Nutrition formed in 1988 comprises the Ministries of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Health, Labour and Social Services, Village Industry Services, the Adaptive Research Planning Team (ca) and is the appropriate formal mechanism for collaboration.
CONSTRAINTS
More training of extension staff in both aquaculture and nutrition and more financial support, for training and implementation will be needed to develop, implement and sustain the links between nutrition and aquaculture.
REFERENCES
Kent, G and Josupheit, H. (1989). The Contribution of Fisheries to Alleviating Malnutrition in Southern Africa. FAO Fisheries Circular No 818. FIIU/C818.
FAO. (1988). ESN Country Profile - Zambia.
FAO. (1987). The Fifth World Food Survey.
FAO. (1988). The State of Food and Agriculture, 1987–88. FAO Agriculture Series No 21.
by I H Beattie, Acting Chief Ecologist (Aquatic) Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism and L Mushonga, Chief Dietitian, Ministry of Health.
INTRODUCTION
Zimbabwe is a land locked country drained by 3 major rivers, the Zambezi to the north and north west, the Limpopo and Sabi rivers to the south and south east. The population of Zimbabwe exceeds 8 million, more than half of whom live in communal areas and 75% are subsistence farmers.
Zimbabwe is a mealie-meal and meat eating country. Animal sources of protein which include beef, game, insects (termites, ants, caterpillars etc) contribute about 1/5 of total protein. Fish supplies about 70% of animal protein. The use of fish, mainly in the form of Matema, is increasing mainly because fish is a little cheaper than beef. However, fish supply cannot meet demand.
AQUACULTURE AND FISH SUPPLY
Status of Aquaculture
The bulk of aquaculture development has occurred since independence in 1980, but some institutions have existed for 30 years or longer.
The oldest is probably the Government Trout Research Development and Production Centre producing fingerlings for stocking/restocking local dams and rivers. A potential production of 12 tonnes/annum. An associated hatchery has a potential of 1 million disease-free ova, some of which are available for sale. Additionally, there are two major commercial and several minor trout farms producing table fish with an estimated production of around 150 tonnes/annum. Future trends are mainly towards developing cooperative trout farms and hatcheries.
There are 6 Government Warm-water Research and Management Centres and an unknown number of commercial and cooperative warmwater fish farms. These are primarily extensive or semi-intensive systems using various Tilapia species. Production is unknown, but estimated at about 200 tonnes/annum. Government emphasis is on developing cooperative ventures.
A hatchery and farm exist for the production of the Giant Malaysian Freshwater Prawn, primarily for the restaurant trade. This is a commercial venture and production is unknown. There may be scope for additional farms of this type.
Capture Fisheries
Catches range between 20–25 thousand tonnes/annum, subject to climatic variation. There is little scope for improvement in productivity.
Imports/Exports
Accurate figures are not available but an estimated 5–10 thousand tonnes are imported annually. A small, unknown amount of high value fish are exported annually, primarily to earn foreign currency.
Fish Consumption
A 1982 survey estimated fish supply at 2.0–2.5kg/caput/annum (0.2kg/caput per annum of fish protein).
Fish consumption per caput will continue to fall due to increasing population, unless aquaculture production can be increased from the present low levels (less than 0.1%).
NUTRITIONAL STATUS
In 1980/81, malnutrition in under fives averaged 50%. Considerable improvements have taken place, but there is still cause for concern.
In 1984, the Central Statistical Nutrition Survey showed that the prevalence of malnutrition in the under fives had dropped to 23.8%. The groups whose children were most affected, in descending order, were: farm labourers in communal areas; urban domestic and mine workers' children. Breastfeeding has an important protective effect: the prevalence of malnutrition among breast fed infants is 5.8% whereas 17.0% of non-breast fed babies are malnourished.
ADMINISTRATION, POLICIES AND DEVELOPMENT PLANS
Aquaculture
This is the responsibility of the Division of Aquatic Ecology of the Department of National Parks and Wild Life Management within the Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism. Also, to a lesser degree, of the Department of Agriculture. Technical and Extension Services (AGRITEX) within the Ministry of Lands, Agriculture and Rural Resettlement. Within the Division Aquatic Ecology, there are some eight Research/Management Centres which are involved in aquaculture to a greater or lesser extent. AGRITEX is less actively involved but has very great potential, particularly in extension.
Government policy is to develop aquaculture as far as is feasible, given the constraints of finance and manpower. Aquaculture represents one of few, perhaps only area, in which protein supply can be significantly increased.
Aquaculture projects.
In the interest of brevity, all the completed, ongoing or planned projects have not been listed. Emphasis mostly lies in the following areas:-
Development of extensive and semi-intensive systems suitable for use in rural areas with special emphasis on productivity.
The search for and development of pure strains of indigenous species suitable for aquaculture.
Establishment of government hatcheries capable of meeting the need for suitable stock fish.
Research into fish diseases and appropriate methods of combating them.
Nutrition
This is the responsibility of the Department of Nutrition in the Ministry of Health. The Department of Nutrition is divided into 2 sections:
Community Services - for the general public.
Institutional Services - concerned with hospitals, clinics etc.
Other ministries are also involved, to some extent, in implementing nutrition programmes.
There is no National Nutrition Policy while one is being formulated, the policy of the Ministry of Health provides a framework viz “to protect and promote health in general by improving the nutritional status of the people of Zimbabwe through intersectoral action and action based on primary health care”.
Development falls into 2 main areas:-
Research with particular emphasis on micronutrient deficiencies.
Training, both of staff and in the development of better training systems and materials.
A number of projects cover the following main areas:-
Growth Monitoring and Nutrition Surveillance.
Nutrition Training and Education.
Research.
Dietetics and Food Services.
Promotion of good infant feeding practices.
The project of main importance to nutrition and aquaculture is the Supplementary Food Production Programme, which aims to “increase community awareness and action on their food and nutrition problems”.
RESEARCH, TRAINING AND EXTENSION
Aquaculture
Research is primarily the responsibility of the Division of Aquatic Ecology and is largely in the areas indicated in C above. Training and extension are mainly the responsibility of AGRITEX. A better interchange of information between the Division of Aquatic Ecology and AGRITEX is needed and is in the process of being developed.
Nutrition
Research (already completed and ongoing) concerns iodine deficiency, protein-energy malnutrition, nutritional status of women and children etc. Areas for further research include Vitamin A and Iron deficiencies and weaning practices, amongst others.
At present nutritionists and dietitians only occur at provincial level. Efforts are being made to extend these personnel to district level. There is a need to
train more Food Service Supervisors;
increase the knowledge of doctors, nurses, health workers (etc), so that they can assist in the various efforts being made to improve the nutritional status of Zimbabweans;
develop training manuals for the various categories of health and other workers.
Extension emphasises upgrading the nutrition knowledge of a variety of workers to assist the few specialists available, in particular extensionists and others who are continuously in contact with the general public.
Intersectorial committees have been formed as a result of the Supplementary Food Production Programme, which play important roles in Research, Training and Extension.
AQUACULTURE AND NUTRITION LINKS
Links exist between the Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism and the Ministry of Health, specifically between the Division of Aquatic Ecology of the Department of Nutrition. There is a need to strengthen and expand these links. The Supplementary Food Production Programme is probably the most suitable way to promote aquaculture/nutrition development. This programme is concerned with developing and improving agriculture which will improve nutrition through increased food availability. The income generated from the sale of surplus product can be used for further developments.
CONSTRAINTS
In both the Ministry of Health and the Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism, the two overriding constraints to the implementation of aquaculture in human nutrition are the lack of finance and of suitably qualified manpower.
