Global Soil Partnership

Capacity development

Trainings on soil pollution

As part of the FAO programme “Restoring Livelihoods and Revitalizing Rural Communities Affected by Mines and Explosive Remnants of War,” the Global Soil Partnership (GSP) is equipping academics, governments, NGO’s with the knowledge and tools needed for accurate soil pollution identification, risk mitigation, and the development of contaminant reduction strategies. These efforts aim to support a sustainable and resilient agricultural future for countries affected by mines and explosive remnants of war. In collaboration with the Global Soil Laboratory Network (GLOSOLAN) and the International Network on Soil Pollution (INSOP) experts, the GSP has developed comprehensive theoretical courses to establish a strong foundation in soil pollution assessment protocols.

TRAININGS

Module 1 – Basic principles of soil and groundwater related to pollution

Module 1 – Basic principles of soil and groundwater related to pollution

 

This module provides the fundamentals of soil and groundwater characteristics, emphasizing their role in environmental systems, pollution, and remediation. It covers soil formation, classification, groundwater movement, pollution pathways, and receptors. The module is designed to equip participants with the theoretical and practical knowledge needed for effective soil and groundwater management.

Key learning outcomes:

  • Understanding soil basics: Recognize the critical role of soil in supporting ecosystems and human activity.
  • Soil composition and properties: Learn about soil components, including minerals, organic matter, air, and water, and understand the role of soil properties such as porosity, texture, and permeability.
  • Groundwater fundamentals: Explore the hydrological cycle and the interaction between soil and groundwater.
  • Pollution sources and pathways: Examine potential sources of pollution.
  • Analytical and field techniques: Gain knowledge of sampling and analysing soil and groundwater.

  Module 1: Basic principles of soil and groundwater related to pollution

 

 

Module 2 – Contaminated soil sampling techniques

Module 2 – Contaminated soil sampling techniques

This module focuses on designing and executing effective soil sampling strategies, particularly in polluted environments. The module emphasizes the importance of accurate sampling to ensure reliable data for pollution assessment and remediation planning. It covers sampling design, fieldwork preparation guidelines, and specific drilling techniques. The module also provides insights into sampling strategies for bomb craters and large scale areas impacted by military activities.

Key learning outcomes:

  • Sampling strategy design: Develop strategies for sampling in bomb craters and areas impacted by munitions, including grid and radial designs. Understand the elements required to design a soil sampling strategy and learn about delineating source zones and spreading zones.
  • Fieldwork preparation: Identify the information required for effective fieldwork, including maps and safety protocols.
  • Sampling techniques: Gain knowledge of various manual and mechanical sampling tools (such as Adelman augers and core samplers) and their appropriate applications, gain insights into multi increment sampling and its potential applications for polluted areas, and prepare and transport samples to laboratories. Learn about sample preparation protocols, labelling requirements, analytical considerations for laboratory analysis, and the importance of aligning fieldwork with regulatory frameworks and remediation goals. 

   Module 2: Contaminated soil sampling techniques

 

 

Module 3 – Modelling of distribution of pollutants in plants

Module 3 – Modelling of distribution of pollutants in plants

 

This module focuses on plant uptake of contaminants, emphasizing the pathways, processes, and modelling approaches to assess pollution in agricultural contexts. The module delves into the physiological mechanisms by which plants absorb contaminants (organic and inorganic) through roots and leaves. It also explores the use of modelling techniques, both empirical and mechanistic to predict contaminant uptake with practical applications for food safety, risk assessment, and environmental regulation. The module highlights challenges such as bioconcentration factor (BCF) variability and the importance of understanding model uncertainty.

Key learning outcomes:

  • Pathways of contaminant uptake: Understand how contaminants are absorbed by plants through roots and leaves.
  • Factors influencing contaminant uptake: Examine the role of soil properties, such as pH, organic matter, and clay content, in controlling contaminant bioavailability and understand plant-specific factors, including root architecture, detoxification mechanisms, and transpiration rates.
  • Modelling contaminant uptake: Learn about empirical and mechanistic models, including their strengths and limitations, and how BCFs are calculated and applied.
  • Applications of models: Explore the use of predictive models in food safety assessments, such as compliance with regulatory thresholds for contaminants.
  • Case studies: Review real world applications of plant uptake models in urban and agricultural contexts.
  • Emerging contaminants: Investigate studies on emerging pollutants such as nanoplastics and their interaction within plant systems.

   Module 3: Modelling of distribution of pollutants in plants 

 

 

Module 4 – Modelling pollutant transport in soil and groundwater

Module 4 – Modelling pollutant transport in soil and groundwater

 

This module focuses on modelling pollutant transport in soil and groundwater, providing a detailed exploration of the processes and principles governing pollutant movement in these media. Participants learn about the integration of numerical models, such as MODFLOW and MT3DMS to simulate pollutant behaviour for risk assessment, remediation planning, and sustainable environmental management. The module emphasizes both theoretical foundations and practical applications, showcasing case studies and discussing challenges in data acquisition and model calibration.

Key learning outcomes:

  • Understanding pollutant transport: Explore key processes such as advection, dispersion, diffusion, sorption, and degradation.
  • Modelling frameworks: Learn about key modelling tools such as MODFLOW for groundwater flow and MT3DMS for pollutant transport.
  • Data requirements for modelling: Identify critical inputs, including soil and aquifer properties, pollutant characteristics, and hydrological data needed for modelling.
  • Calibration and validation: Learn about techniques to calibrate models using field observations of hydraulic head and pollutant concentrations.
  • Case studies: Explore case studies demonstrating the use of models for quarry management, pollutant plume tracking, and remediation design. 

  Module 4: Modeling pollutant transport in soil and groundwater 

 

 

Module 5 – Data interpretation with respect to plant uptake

Module 5 – Data interpretation with respect to plant uptake

 

This module covers the concept of soil fertility, nutrient management, and their critical role in agricultural productivity. The module discusses the interplay of physical, chemical, and biological soil properties influencing nutrient availability, plant uptake and overall soil function. The module combines theoretical knowledge with practical tools for soil fertility assessment, nutrient management planning and sustainable agricultural practices.

Key learning outcomes:

  • Soil health and fertility: Learn the difference between soil health and soil quality, including challenges in measurement and management.
  • Nutrient cycling: Explore the process of nutrient uptake pathways and physiological functions in plants. Learn about the cycles of key nutrients such as nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), and sulphur (S) and their interaction with soil properties and processes of mineralization, nitrification and nutrient fixation.
  • Soil fertility assessment: Learn about methods for evaluating soil fertility, including soil texture, cation exchange capacity (CEC), soil pH, and organic matter content. Explore tools and frameworks such as soil classification, nutrient balance calculations and soil fertility mapping.
  • Case studies: Explore examples of crop specific nutrient calculators being demonstrated to balance soil nutrient levels.
  • Emerging trends: Explore the use of advanced modelling tools for soil fertility management and nutrient cycling predictions.

  Module 5 : Data interpretation with respect to plant uptake 

 

 

Module 6 – Analyses of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in soil samples

Module 6 – Analyses of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in soil samples

 

This module explores the analytical methods for determining polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in soil. It covers the entire process, from sample pretreatment to final analysis, emphasizing precision and adherence to quality control standards. Participants gain practical knowledge of the methodologies, including gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC MS), and learn about the importance of safety measures when handling hazardous materials.

Key learning outcomes:

  • Understanding PAHs: Understand the health hazards of PAHs, including their carcinogenic properties and behaviour in soil and food chains.
  • Sample preparation and pretreatment: Learn about available analytical methods for PAH detection, quantification and calibration using linear curves and relative response factors and understand how to calculate PAH concentrations using internal standards.
  • Quality control: Understand the importance of blank samples, procedural recovery and control standards for ensuring accuracy, safety and hazard management.
  • Case studies: Explore case studies and learn tips for troubleshooting common issues in PAH analysis, such as interference and contamination.

  Module 6: Analyses of PAH in soil samples 

 

 

Module 7 – Dealing with energetic materials

Module 7 – Dealing with energetic materials

 

This module introduces energetic materials (explosives, propellants and pyrotechnics), their chemical and physical properties, and their interaction with the environment. Participants explore the lifecycle of these materials, including synthesis, application, degradation, and remediation in contaminated environments. Special emphasis is placed on how these materials enter the environment, their toxicity, and practical approaches to safely manage and assess areas impacted by unexploded ordnance (UXO) or explosive remnants of war (ERW).

Key learning outcomes:

  • Principles of energetic materials: Learn about the three main categories of energetic materials (explosives, propellants, and pyrotechnics), the principles of explosions, including deflagration and detonation, and how they enter the environment.
  • Environmental behaviour of energetic materials: Study the processes of photolysis, hydrolysis and biotransformation in degrading energetic materials in the environment. Learn about their bioaccumulation, mobility and volatilization risks, with a special focus on soil and water pollution.
  • Handling of energetic materials: Learn about the toxic effects of trinitrotoluene (TNT), royal demolition eXplosive (RDX) and 2,4 dinitrotoluene (DNT) on humans, including carcinogenic risks and organ damage, and gain insights into safe disposal practices for UXOs and ERWs to reduce environmental contamination.
  • Assessment and risk management: Explore the strategies for assessing and mitigating pollution at impacted sites.
  • Case studies: Explore case studies demonstrating the environmental assessment of sites contaminated with explosives. 

  Module 7: Dealing with energetic materials 

 

 

Module 8 – Techniques for remediation of contaminated soil and groundwater

Module 8 – Techniques for remediation of contaminated soil and groundwater

 

This module provides an explanation of remediation techniques for polluted soil and groundwater. Participants gain insights into various physical, chemical, and biological approaches to managing pollution, with a focus on sustainable and effective practices. The module covers the fundamental principles, practical applications, and challenges associated with remediation technologies, emphasizing real-world case studies and best practices.

Key learning outcomes:

  • Overview of remediation approaches: Understand ex situ and in situ remediation techniques, phytoremediation, and how plants are used to stabilize, extract, degrade or volatilize contaminants.
  • Design and implementation challenges: Gain insights into factors affecting remediation success, such as soil type, contaminant properties and site conditions.
  • Case studies: Analyse real world examples to understand the decision making process for selecting appropriate remediation techniques.

  Module 8: Techniques for remediation of contaminated soil and groundwater

 

 

Module 9 – Soil major nutrient analyses

Module 9 – Soil major nutrient analyses

 

This module provides a guide to laboratory methods for analysing essential soil nutrients, including nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), and sulphur (S). The module emphasizes standardized techniques such as spectrophotometry, flame photometry and inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP OES). The module discusses sample preparation, extraction methods, and quality assurance protocols to ensure accuracy and reproducibility. Designed for both theoretical understanding and practical application, the module offers participants insights into managing soil fertility for sustainable agriculture.

Key learning outcomes:

  • Nutrient analysis fundamentals: Understand the role of key nutrients (N, P, K and S) in soil health and plant growth. Learn the process of sample preparation and handling, the analytical techniques required to measure soil nutrients, and extraction methods using potassium chloride (KCl), ammonium acetate (NH4CH3CO2), and sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3).
  • Practical applications: Assess soil fertility and nutrient availability for agricultural decision making, and discrepancies between different extraction methods and analyse their implications.

  Module 9: Soil major nutrient analyses 

 

 

Module 10 – Soil micronutrient analysis

Module 10 – Soil micronutrient analysis

 

This module covers the chemical and physical properties of soils, focusing on advanced analytical methods for assessing soil fertility, cation exchange capacity (CEC) and soil particle size distribution. Participants explore the relationship between soil composition, fertility and agricultural productivity. The module emphasizes practical laboratory techniques, data interpretation, and understanding the influence of soil characteristics on nutrient availability and plant growth.

Key learning outcomes:

  • Measurement of CEC: Understand the concept of CEC as a measure of soil fertility and its relationship with clay and organic matter, and explore various methods for measuring it, including ammonium acetate and cobalt hexamine techniques.
  • Micronutrient availability: Study the availability and behaviour of essential micronutrients such as copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), manganese (Mn), and iron (Fe) in soils and understand how soil properties such as pH, organic matter and clay content affect micronutrient solubility and plant uptake.
  • Particle size distribution: Gain insights into the role of soil texture and its impact on water retention, drainage, and fertility, and learn about appropriate methods such as sedimentation and pipette techniques for measuring soil particle sizes (sand, silt and clay).
  • Laboratory techniques and quality control: Understand key laboratory procedures, including sample preparation, sieving, sedimentation, and chemical extraction. Learn how to analyse soil test data to assess fertility levels and categorize soils based on their physical and chemical properties, use multivariate statistical tools (e.g. principal component analysis) and identify trends in fertility and nutrient availability.
  • Emerging trends: Explore new techniques, such as laser diffraction used for particle size analysis and their advantages over traditional methods.

  Module 10: Soil micronutrient analysis 

 

 

Module 11 – Dealing with radioactivity in soil and groundwater

Module 11 – Dealing with radioactivity in soil and groundwater

 

This module introduces the fundamentals of radioactivity, focusing on soil and groundwater pollution. The module covers the principles of radioactive decay, the types of radiation (alpha, beta and gamma), their differences, and their interaction in environmental media. Participants learn about necessary protection measures such as minimum personal protective equipment (PPE) needed in handling radioactive materials, sampling protocols, and analytical challenges for radioactive materials. The module emphasizes practical strategies for handling, analysing, and remediating radioactive pollution with environmental monitoring and nuclear safety applications.

Key learning outcomes:

  • Understanding radioactivity: Learn the basics of radioactive decay, isotopes, and the types of radiation (alpha, beta, and gamma), explore the electromagnetic spectrum, and the concept of ionizing radiation. Understand the risks of alpha, beta, and gamma radiation and the protective measures needed.
  • Sampling, sample preparation and handling: Gain insights into the challenges of sampling radioactive soil and groundwater, understand techniques for representative sampling, and learn about specialized containers and protective measures for managing spills and handling high activity samples in controlled environments. Learn about waste management protocols for radioactive materials.
  • Analytical methods: Explore methods for detecting and analysing radioactive isotopes using alpha, beta, and gamma spectroscopy. Understand the role of mass spectrometry in isotope identification and quantification. Learn strategies for dealing with decay corrections, interference and limited calibration standards.
  • Case studies: Understand the use of hand held devices and dosimeters for onsite radiation monitoring from the field studies presented.

  Module 11: Dealing with radioactivity in soil and groundwater

 

 

Module 12 – Determination of pH

Module 12 – Determination of pH

 

This module focuses on determining soil pH, a critical parameter for assessing soil health and agricultural productivity. It covers the importance of pH and its effect on nutrient availability, microbial activity, and soil structure. The module explains pH measurement principles, the theoretical basis of pH electrodes, and detailed step-by-step guidance on laboratory and field pH determination. The module covers the principles of quality control, safety considerations, and best practices for maintaining accuracy and reliability in pH measurements.

Key learning outcomes:

  • Importance of soil pH: Understand the significance of soil pH in nutrient availability, microbial activity, and soil structure.
  • Analytical methods: Explore the role of pH electrodes, including the function of measurement and reference electrodes. Understand the preparation of soil samples, including air drying, sieving and selection of extraction solutions (water, calcium chloride [CaCl2] and potassium chloride [KCl]). Understand basic calibration techniques using certified buffer solutions and automatic buffer recognition. Learn how to evaluate electrode performance by checking slope, offset, and response time.
  • Field and laboratory applications: Gain insights into laboratory procedures for measuring soil pH, including stirring, equilibration and suspension measurement. Explore best practices for maintaining pH electrodes, including storage solutions, cleaning methods, and handling. Learn how to identify and address common issues such as electrode blockage, contamination and degraded performance.

  Module 12: Determination of pH

 

 

Module 13 – Groundwater sampling techniques and methods

Module 13 – Groundwater sampling techniques and methods

 

This module provides an overview of field screening methods and groundwater sampling techniques for environmental monitoring and pollution assessment. Participants learn about the use of oil detection pans, soil dye tests, handheld photoionization detectors (PIDs), and X-ray fluorescence analysers (XRF) for rapid field analysis. The module covers the principles of groundwater monitoring well installation, active and passive sampling methods, and the interpretation of field data for environmental risk management.

Key learning outcomes:

  • Field screening techniques: Learn how to perform rapid screening methods for pollution detection, including oil detection pans, soil dye tests and handheld PIDs. Gain proficiency in using hand held XRF for onsite trace element analysis.
  • Groundwater sampling principles: Distinguish between active sampling methods, such as high flow and low flow sampling, and passive sampling methods such as equilibrium and kinetic techniques. Learn to design and install monitoring wells with appropriate filters and sealing methods. Understand the considerations for sampling in complex environments, such as areas impacted by pure product zones such as light non aqueous phase liquid (LNAPL) and dense non aqueous phase liquid (DNAPL).
  • Calibration and quality assurance: Understand the importance of calibrating field equipment, such as PIDs and XRF devices, for accurate and reliable results.
  • Reporting and documentation: Learn about documenting field screening and sampling data, including well characteristics, sampling parameters, and deviations from guidelines.

  Module 13: Groundwater sampling techniques and methods

 

 

Module 14 – Determination of electrical conductivity (EC)

Module 14 – Determination of electrical conductivity (EC)

 

This module focuses on measuring electrical conductivity (EC) in soil samples, a critical parameter for assessing soil salinity. Participants are introduced to the theoretical background of EC, its importance in environmental and agricultural contexts, and practical steps for laboratory and field measurements. Emphasis is placed on standard analytical methods, calibration protocols, and quality control measures to ensure accuracy and reliability in EC determinations.

Key learning outcomes:

  • Understanding EC: Define EC and its role as a measure of soluble salts in soil and water. Understand how high salinity affects plant growth, nutrient availability and soil structure.
  • Analytical methods: Learn step by step procedures for sample preparation, extraction, and measurement using EC sensors, the principles of two pole and four pole EC sensors, their construction, and applications. Explore the effects of temperature on EC readings and the importance of temperature corrections. Learn how to deal with polarization effects, air bubbles and sensor contamination.
  • Quality assurance and troubleshooting: Learn how to implement quality control protocols, including blank samples, control standards and duplicate analyses. Understand how to identify and resolve common errors in EC measurements, such as calibration drift and sensor fouling.

 

  Module 14: Determination of electrical conductivity 

 

 

Module 15 – Determination of soil organic carbon (SOC)

Module 15 – Determination of soil organic carbon (SOC)

 

This module covers the principles and practices for determining soil organic carbon (SOC). Participants learn about the significance of SOC for soil fertility, water retention and climate change mitigation. The module emphasizes standardized analytical techniques, including wet chemical oxidation and dry combustion methods, with a focus on their applications and limitations.

Key learning outcomes:

  • Understanding SOC: Gain insights into the role of SOC in enhancing soil fertility, water retention and nutrient availability. Explore the role of SOC in mitigating climate change through carbon sequestration and its impact on sustainable agriculture. Address the challenges of differentiating between organic, elemental and inorganic carbon (C). Explore temperature dependent methods for fractionating C and analysing black C.
  • Analytical methods: Learn the principles of wet chemical oxidation methods, including the Walkley Black and Tyurin spectrophotometric methods. Gain insights into the dry combustion method for complete C oxidation and its advantages over chemical methods. Explore the configuration and operation of total organic carbon (TOC) analysers. Learn the step by step procedure for sample preparation, including air drying, grinding, and sieving to achieve uniformity.
  • Standard methods and guidelines: Familiarize yourself with relevant standards for SOC determination, such as EN 15936 and ISO 10694.
  • Calibration and quality control: Implement quality control protocols, such as analysing blank samples, control standards and proficiency testing, to ensure accuracy.
  • Emerging trends: Explore global initiatives for SOC mapping and harmonization efforts to combat land degradation and food insecurity. Learn about the potential of recarbonizing soils as a cost effective climate change adaptation and mitigation strategy. 

  Module 15: Determination of organic carbon

 

 

Module 16 – Strontium 90 and caesium 137

Module 16 – Strontium 90 and caesium 137

 

This module focuses on analytical techniques for measuring radioactive isotopes in soil and water samples, such as strontium 90 (Sr90) and caesium 137 (Cs137). The module provides a comprehensive overview of sample preparation, analytical methods such as liquid scintillation counting and gamma spectrometry, and challenges related to isotope separation and measurement. Participants gain insights into the principles of radioactive decay, safety protocols and calibration techniques to ensure reliable and accurate measurements.

Key learning outcomes:

  • Understanding target isotopes: Learn about Sr90 and Cs137, their origins (nuclear testing and reactor waste) and their radioactive properties. Understand the decay mechanisms of these isotopes, including beta and gamma emissions, and their implications for environmental monitoring.
  • Sample preparation: Techniques for soil and water sample preparation, including microwave digestion, dissolution and radiochemical separation.
  • Analytical methods: Learn about liquid scintillation counting and gamma spectrometry. Address issues such as isotope overlap, decay during analysis and spectral interferences.
  • Calibration and quality control: Learn how to calibrate energy, peak shape, and efficiency in liquid scintillation counting and gamma spectrometry. Understand the role of internal and external calibration methods, including the use of certified reference materials and standards. Explore uncertainty calculation, including chemical recovery, counting efficiency and decay correction.
  • Safety and radiation protection: Understand protective measures for handling beta and gamma emitters, including minimum PPE, shielding materials and distance protocols. Learn best practices to prevent contamination and ensure personal and environmental safety.
  • Emerging trends: Explore global harmonization efforts for radiochemical standards, including the role of international agencies such as the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).

  Module 16: Strontium 90 and Cesium 137

 

 

Module 17 – Determination of elements in soil using inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy (ICP OES)

Module 17 – Determination of elements in soil using inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy (ICP OES)

 

This module provides a detailed exploration of using inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy (ICP OES) to measure trace elements in soil. The module covers the principles of soil sample preparation, acid digestion and the operational mechanics of ICP OES. Emphasis is placed on optimizing analytical procedures, understanding instrument calibration and managing quality control to ensure precise and accurate results.

Key learning outcomes:

  • Understanding ICP-OES: Learn the principles of ICP-OES for multi element analysis. Understand the sensitivity and detection limits of ICP OES for various elements, including trace elements and micronutrients.
  • Sample preparation: Learn about soil sample drying, grinding and sieving steps to achieve sample homogeneity. Learn about acid digestion methods such as aqua regia and hydrofluoric acid.
  • Instrument calibration: Understand calibration procedures using multi element standards to establish linear ranges and accuracy.
  • Operational workflow: Learn how to optimize nebulization and aerosol formation for effective plasma excitation.
  • Quality assurance/quality control (QA/QC): Understand the QA/QC measures, including procedure blanks, certified reference materials and calibration checks. Learn how to read calibration curves, spectral interferences and drift control to ensure data accuracy. Explore techniques for addressing matrix effects, spectral overlap, and background noise in complex soil samples. Use interelement correction methods to improve analytical precision for overlapping peaks.
  • Safety and maintenance: Understand the importance of regular instrument maintenance, including torch inspection and nebulizer cleaning.
  • Reporting and documentation: Gain proficiency in interpreting emission spectra and calculating element concentrations from intensity data.

 

 

  Module 17: Determination of elements in soil using ICP-OES 

 

 

Module 18 – Energetic materials

Module 18 – Energetic materials

 

This module focuses on analytical techniques for detecting explosive and propellant residues in soil and environmental samples. The module covers the principles of sample preparation, extraction, and analysis, emphasizing the use of liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (LC MS/MS) for accurate quantification. Participants gain insights into laboratory protocols, safety considerations, and practical applications of the techniques in real world scenarios, such as post conflict environmental assessments.

Key learning outcomes:

  • Understanding analytical standards and methods: Get to know ISO standards for soil quality and explosive residue detection. Understand the advantages of LC MS/MS over traditional methods such as gas chromatography (GC) or ultraviolet (UV) detectors and the principles of LC MS/MS, including separation through liquid chromatography and detection via mass spectrometry. Understand the importance of measuring soil water content for accurate residue quantification.
  • Sample preparation and storage: Learn about best practices for sample storage to prevent explosive degradation. Understand homogenization and sieving techniques needed to prepare soil samples while avoiding cross contamination.
  • Extraction techniques: Explore methods such as Soxhlet extraction, mechanical shaking and ultrasonic baths for isolating explosive residues.
  • Calibration and quality control: Gain proficiency using internal standards and multipoint calibration curves. Understand the concepts of limits of detection (LOD) and limit of quantification (LOQ), and their significance in trace residue analysis.
  • Emerging trends: Discuss complementary approaches such as dog assisted detection for field applications.

  Module 18: Energetic materials 

 

 


Funded by the Government of Canada