Africa: Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria, Tanzania
Asia: Bangladesh, China, Indonesia, Pakistan, The Philippines, Thailand, Viet Nam
Europe: Hungary, Romania, Turkey
Latin America: Argentina, Brazil, Cuba, Mexico
Near East: Egypt, Iran, Syria, Tunisia
Associate Members: Australia, Canada, Colombia, India, Italy, Spain, Sudan, Uzbekistan

World population has doubled in the past 40 years and may double again in the next century, approaching about 11 billion by the year 2100 (World Resources Institute, 1992). Most of this increase will take place in the developing countries. Asia and Africa will have populations of 4.9 billion and 1.6 billion, respectively, by the year 2025. In 1997, 4.8 billion of the world’s 5.8 billion people (83 percent) were living in developing countries (FA0, 1997).

Of the 13 048 million ha total land area of the world, only 3190 million ha are potentially arable, with 734 million ha in Africa, 628 million ha in Asia and 681 million ha in Latin America. Currently only 1474 million ha or 46.2 percent of these arable lands are cultivated (of which 185 million ha in Africa, 451 million ha in Asia and 142 million ha in Latin America, FAO 1997). Worldwide, the area of arable land has increased by less than 6 percent in the last 25 years. However, per capita arable land has decreased from a worldwide average of 0.38 ha in 1970 and has progressively declined to 0.23 ha in 2000, with a forecast of 0.15 ha by 2050 and even lower to 0.14 ha by 2100.

Although large areas of new land could be brought under cultivation, unused land is not always available to people who need it most, and opening new areas remains an expensive means of increasing agriculture production. Also further expansion of agricultural land is constrained in many parts of developing countries, for example, shortage of water for irrigation in arid regions. Therefore, the only alternative is to optimize the production of existing arable land including salt-affected soils.

At the beginning of the 1990s, the worldwide average consumption of food production per capita was 2670 calories per day, a level considered adequate. However, this global average has little significance as there are enormous variations in the amount of food available to each individual. In fact, inadequate food consumption levels prevail in a large number of developing countries (average of 2434 calories per capita in developing countries compared with 3399 in developed countries), with even wider gaps between and within the developing countries themselves. The number of chronically hungry people in the world increased from about 560 million in 1970 to almost 800 million in 2000, of which 60 percent live in Asia, 25 percent in Africa and 10 percent in Latin America and the Caribbean.

Agriculture output and food production increased in both developed and developing countries in the period 1975-1995, with a higher annual rate in developing countries (3 percent) than in developed countries (2 percent). In developing countries there were major increases in Asia, nearly stable in Latin America and a marked drop in Africa. However, the annual rate of growth in cereal production was higher than population growth in developed countries (twice as much), whilst in developing countries it was much lower (about one-fifth as much). Currently, it is 777 kg annual cereal output per capita in developed countries, compared with only 248 kg in developing countries.

The relation between land productivity and population supporting capacity is complex. In the Agroecological Zones Project (Higgins et al., 1983), FAO made a major effort to assess the productive capacity of the land for different countries. They found that under traditional low-input systems of agriculture, there were 64 countries at risk of not being able to feed their population by the year 2000. This figure has subsequently been revised to 82. However, at moderate or high levels of inputs most, but not all, countries are estimated to be able to support their present populations. What is not certain at present is whether the cost of the inputs and other necessary measures to ensure that the more productive systems are sustainable can be met.

To meet the food demand will be no easy task, given that the higher yields have to be obtained primarily from soils that are already degraded. Even where previously unused land is available it will not be easy, as that land will be predominantly land previously considered unsuitable for cultivation because of the existing production constraints. However, although the food supply must expand, it must expand in a way that does not destroy the natural environment. For that to happen, a steady stream of appropriate integrated, site specific technologies that minimize erosion, desertification and salinization of the soil and other environmental damage must be introduced.

Food Production and Requirements in Member Countries

Africa 

Ghana: Ghana is an agricultural country and its development has long been dependant on agricultural production and agro-based industries. Currently, the agricultural sector accounts for 45 percent of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP), contributes 60 percent of export earnings, employs about 70 percent of the rural labour force and provides over 90 percent of the food needs of the country in a sustainable manner. Ghana’s agriculture is largely based on small holder farms characterized by low input and low output. About 60 percent of the farms are less than 1.2 ha, 25 percent are between 1.2 and 2 ha and only 15 percent are over 2 ha in size.

Ghana with a total area of 23.8 million ha has only 13.6 million ha lands suitable for agricultural use, mostly under rainfed conditions of which only 5.3 million is under cultivation. Irrigated agriculture has not become very important in the agricultural sector. The irrigation projects in all the agro-ecological zones of the country cover a total area of approximately 10 000 ha but there are plans to increase these to 100 000 ha by the year 2020 (six agro-ecological zones exist in the country: high rainfall, semi-deciduous, forest-savannah transition, Guinea savannah, Sudan savannah and coastal savannah). Food crops include maize, millet, sorghum, in addition to cotton, bananas, oil palm, yams and vegetables.

Population pressure (population is 18 million at a growth rate of 3.2 percent) has resulted in reduced fallow periods and the use of marginal lands with inappropriate land management practices. About 36.9 percent of the population were poor in 1987-1988, which has dropped now to 30 percent. Low agricultural production can be attributed to man’s activities. Timber harvesting, annual bush burning, settlement and road constructions, mineral mining especially gold mining are important in degrading the soil and the environment. Other contributing factors include Government policies of withdrawing subsidies on agricultural inputs making the prevailing prices unaffordable. Farmers are no longer using fertilizers and agro-chemicals due to their high prices. Problems of transportation and marketing of commodities and unfavourable land tenure systems, as well as lack of credit, especially small-scale farmers, adversely affect the performance of the agricultural sector. These activities have resulted in land degradation through deforestation, accelerated soil erosion, subsoil compaction, overgrazing, petroplinthite (ironpan) formation and salinity development

Kenya: Kenya has a total land area of 57 million ha of which 4.5 million are arable and permanent crops. The country falls on both sides of the equator, approximately 5⁰ South and North and between 34⁰ and 42⁰ longitude. The country varies in altitude from sea level to more than 4000 m asl. Climatic conditions vary from arid to humid.

On the basis of the ratio of annual rainfall (r) and average annual potential evaporation (Eo), Kenya can be divided into seven classes of moisture availability regions. Three of these classes (agro-climatic zones V, VI, VII), whose upper boundary of r/Eo ratio are 40, 25 and 15 respectively, are semi-arid, arid, and very arid, the so-called arid and semi-arid (ASAL) areas. These cover approximately 83 percent of the country. The arid zone (VII) alone covers nearly half of Kenya. Only approximately 17 percent of the country is of medium to high agricultural potential. The major production constraint is low rainfall coupled with low fertility status of most soils.

The total land under irrigation is about 80 000 ha, half of which has salt-affected soils as a result of poor irrigation and drainage management.

In medium to high rainfall areas, there is substantial crop diversity. Cash crops in these regions include tea, coffee, wheat, barely and horticultural crops, while subsistence crops include maize, beans, bananas and vegetables. Subsistence crops are usually intercropped. In the arid and semi-arid areas, adapted varieties of maize, beans, cowpeas, pigeon peas, sorghum and millet are grown at subsistence level.

Agriculture supports over 80 percent of the population (total population is 28.4 million). Maize is the most important food crop in Kenya and constitutes the staple food for over 95 percent of the population. Subdivision of land since 1979, led to uneconomically viable parcels of agricultural land. Population pressure has resulted in increased land pressure, leading people into fragile land, with a large decrease in per capita cultivated land.

Nigeria: Nigeria has a total land area of 91.1 million ha, of which 57 percent is either under crops or pasture while the balance of 43 percent represents the area under forest, rivers/lakes/reservoirs and others. Nationwide, the agriculture land use involves three systems of production, namely, rotational fallow agriculture, semi-permanent or permanent agriculture and mixed agriculture. The country is endowed with abundant natural resources, which include 68 million ha of arable land and 960 km of coastline, and an ecological diversity that enables it to produce a wide variety of crops such as maize, millet, sorghum, in addition to cotton, bananas, oil palm, yams and vegetables.

Nigeria is oil producing and a member of the OPEC. Contribution of the agricultural sector to the GDP is about 38 percent, compared to 24 percent and 38 percent, respectively, for industry and services sector. In spite of the apparent contribution of petroleum to the economy, the real strength of the national economy is founded on its agricultural sector base, human resources and huge market. However, at present the country is experiencing rapid decline and poor management of its resources and an uncontrolled environmental pollution that may threaten the agricultural potential of the country.

Nigeria has a population estimated at 118 million people, with an annual growth rate of 3.2 percent. About 63 percent of the population live in rural areas. With urbanization, population increased accompanied by increased petrol-dollar earning from export of crude oil, consumption patterns changed even in the rural areas leading to higher demands for wheat, rice and sugar, etc. much of which has to be imported.

Tanzania: The population of Tanzania is about 31.5 million people. Agriculture is the main stay of the Tanzanian economy and nearly 80 percent of the population earn their living through agricultural activities. The agricultural sector in Tanzania accounts for about 60 percent of the Gross Domestic product (GDP) of which the dominant sub sector is food production. Food crops grown include maize, rice, sorghum, wheat, barley legumes, millet, banana, sweet potato, Irish potatoes, cassava and a wide variety of horticultural vegetables and fruits. The major cash crops grown include coffee, cotton, sisal, tea, tobacco cashew and pyrethrum. The livestock sub sector is estimated to contribute 32 percent of the Agricultural GDP. Some of the land is also being used for extensive grazing of cattle, sheep and goats.

Recent estimates by the Ministries of Lands, Agriculture and Cooperatives, and University of Dar-es-Salaam show that agricultural production in Tanzania is dominated by small holder resource poor farmers who are estimated to constitute about 70 percent of the total population. It is estimated that land with the potential for agriculture totals 51.3 million, but the actual area being cultivated is less than 15 percent of this potential. The main farming system is small holder, which occupies nearly 4.5 million ha. About 50 percent of the population have incomes under poverty line of which 83 percent live in households where the main occupation is farming. Commercial farming occupies about 600 000 ha. Most of the agricultural land (80 percent) is suitable for rainfed agriculture (the annual rainfall varies from 600 to 2000 mm) and about 64 agro-ecological zones have been identified for the country. The Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, however, estimates that by the year 2000, 13 out of the 20 regions may not be able to meet their food demand from rainfed production only, given the current low level of output (by the year 2025, 17 of the total 20 regions will belong to this deficit category). Irrigation, therefore, seems to be the inevitable alternative that will rescue the country from chronic food shortage (the country has 5 million ha of potential irrigable land of which only 190 000 ha are under irrigation).

Bangladesh: Bangladesh has an area of 14.7 million ha. The population is disproportionately large, almost 125 million, with population density being more than 800 persons per km² and it is growing at the rate of about 2 percent per year. Projections for the country show that, by the year 2020, the population may be around 175 million and probably will increase further to about 200 million by the year 2030. Agriculture, accounting for 30-35 percent of the GDP and more than 60 percent of employment, plays an important role in the economy of Bangladesh. Rice is the staple food of the country, and is the pivotal crop in the yearly cropping patterns on almost all agricultural lands. Bangladesh still remains a food-deficit country requiring on average, 1.5 to 2.5 million tons of food grain imports annually. There is a broad range of agro-ecological environments in Bangladesh because of differences in climate, physiography, soil type and hydrology. Depending on these factors, the country has been divided into 30 agro-ecological zones which are relevant to the assessment of agricultural potentials of the various regions of the country. Bangladesh will need a large food production boost, which will not be possible unless use is made of all marginal land resources, which have hitherto remained under-utilized due to agro-ecological and also socio-economic constraints, together with the help of appropriate technological interventions.

China: China has an area of 135 million ha of arable land, of which 77 million ha are rainfed agriculture. In addition, 53 million ha are paddy fields of which 31 million ha are rainfed and 22 million ha are irrigated land. Groundwater and river water are commonly used as irrigation water resources in China, while drainage water and mixed water are only used in some arid and semi-arid regions. Soil salinity, sodicity, drought, soil erosion, low fertility and poor soil structure and texture represent the main constraints to agricultural production. The cropping systems vary from one crop in the Northeast China Plain to three crops in the South China hill region. The dominant cropping system comprises two-crops annually.

It is recognized that China has successfully fed its people, representing 22 percent of world -population (1.2 billion people), by using only 7 percent of the world's arable land. As long as the actual annual increment in the country reaches 1 percent during 1999-2010 and 0.7 percent by 2011-2030, China will achieve the expected goal of total food production. To ensure the certain increment of food production, the main practical measures will be to enhance the potential of current arable land and to exploit the potential of unused land resources, exerting functions of technological advancement and best use of non-grain food resources.

Indonesia: Indonesia consists of 13 677 islands, with a total area of 181 million ha, of which 18 million ha and 13 million ha are arable and permanent crops, respectively. Irrigated area covers 4.6 million ha. Total population in 1999 was 207 million. Sumatra, Java, Kalimatan, Sulawesi and Irian Jaya are the five largest islands. Swamp lands cover vast areas, estimated at 33.4 million ha, which are divided into three zones: brackish/saline tidal lands; fresh water tidal land; and non-tidal lands. The coastal lands are in the brackish/saline land zone, estimated at 8.1 million ha. To maintain rice and other crops especially maize and soybean self-sufficiency, the Government has launched different intensification, extensification and diversification programmes. As lands with relatively fertile soils have mostly been utilized, agricultural activities have been extended to problem soils, such as those of coastal lands, which consist of two dominant soil types: acid sulphate and peat soils. The type of land utilization adopted by farmers depends upon the tidal and soil types. On potential acid sulphate soil with a pyritic layer deeper than 0.5 m, lands are used for sawah, lowland rice fields, or sorjan system. Part of the farmyards are used for fish-ponds, or planting vegetables. Fruit crops and forages, local chickens, ducks, Bali cattle and goats have been promising in the area (chicken-fish system is called "long-yam" and the duck-fish system is called "long-tik").

Farmers usually plant local varieties of lowland rice once a year. The varieties are not only well adapted but also flexible to local conditions

Pakistan: Pakistan covers about 80 million ha of land area comprising six different physiographic units: the southern high mountains, the Hindu Kush and western mountainous regions, the Potowar Plateau, the Salt Range and the Balochistan Plateau, the Indus Plain and the desert area of Thal, and Cholistan. The climate of the country can be classified as arid to semi-arid with variable rainfall over most of the country.

About 20 million ha of land are currently under crop of which one-third is rainfed and the rest is irrigated. Except for the plateaux and mountain areas, groundwater is used as a supplementary source of irrigation water in the canal irrigated areas either directly or after mixing with canal waters. Use of sewage water for crop production is limited to areas around big cities for growing vegetable crops. Major cropping seasons are kharif (summer-cotton, rice, maize and sugar cane) and rabi (winter-wheat, barley, tobacco and oilseeds).

Inadequate supply of irrigation water at critical times of growth, lack of drainage, saline and sodic soils, low quality seeds, antiquated farm implements, imbalances in farm inputs, unsatisfactory agriculture and irrigation practices are some of the main production constraints affecting crop production in Pakistan. Since the introduction of canal irrigation, waterlogging and soil salinity have become the major problems impeding agricultural growth.

The Philippines: The Philippines is an archepelagic country consisting mainly of three major groups of islands: Luzan, Visayas and Mindanao. The geographical setting of these islands gives the country one of the longest coastline in the world (180 000 km). The country has a total land area of 30 million ha, which is subdivided into: agricultural area, grasslands/shrublands, woodlands, wetlands and miscellaneous land use areas. The farmers in these adverse ecosystems are perpetually poor and marginalized because their basic livelihood efforts, i.e. subsistence rice production, are disrupted annually by recurrence of typhoons, river and tidal flooding. The coastal landscapes are ecosystems with very adverse conditions: vulnerability to soil salinization, low productivity, which are aggravated further by factors such as yearly occurrences of typhoons. Despite the limitations of these low productivity salt-affected coastal farms, they form part of the country’s limited arable lands where farmers can at best provide low input and traditional production technology. The total agriculture land is 9.5 million ha, of which about 31 percent is utilized to irrigated (total irrigated area is 1.5 million ha) and non-irrigated paddy rice. Corn covers 12 percent of the total agricultural land. Total production for rice and corn were estimated at 11.3 million tons and 4.3 million tons, respectively. However, such levels of production are insufficient to meet the growing needs of the population. Population estimate for the year 2000 is 75 million at a 2.3 percent growth rate. Rice and corn imports amounted to 731 000 tons and 302 900 tons, respectively. There was heavier dependency on importation of garlic, peanut and mango. On the other hand, local producers sufficiently provide for the domestic consumption needs for coconut, sugar and most of the fruits, vegetables, and root crops. Thus, salt-affected areas are significantly important towards the reduction of food insecurity of the coastal communities. Despite low productivity of the salt-affected areas, farmers continue planting rice for their home consumption.

Thailand: The total area of the country is approximately 51.4 million ha. The coastline is 2 705 km long and bordrs the Gulf of Thailand in the east and the Andaman Sea in the west. The principal physiographic regions are: the Central Plain, the Southeast, the Northeast (Khorat Plateau), the Central Highlands, the North and West Continental Highlands and the Peninsular. Agricultural land is approximately 20.1 million ha and is used for paddy, field crops, fruit and tree crops, vegetables and flowers, livestock farms and others, with an area of 11.0, 5.2, 3.4, 0.15 and 1.3 million ha, respectively (rice is the major crop - other crops include maize, cassava, sugarcane, peanuts, coconuts, soybeans, rubber, cotton and kenaf). The irrigated area is 4.7 million ha or 22.6 percent of arable land, of which 45 percent is in the Central Plain. Groundwater resources exist throughout Thailand. However, the quantity and qulaity vary according to local hydrogeological conditions.

At present, all potential agriculture land cultivation has been used to cope with the increasing demand for food by the growing population (total population is 60 million). This has led to diverse use of the land for many purposes, which has caused degradation of the soil and water resources, particularly anthropogenic soil salinization on arable land. This is believed to be a major cause of production constraints that would affect the National Action Plan for Food Security.

Viet Nam: Viet Nam has a coastline of more than 3 260 km, in an 'S' shape (Mong Cai to Ha Tien province) with a total area of 33 million ha, of which 7.3 million ha are agricultural lands, 9.6 million ha forest, 0.97 million ha for other uses, 0.82 million ha for construction and unused lands which occupy 45 percent (14.9 million ha) of the total area. Population is more than 76 million. Annual cropping land is 5.5 million ha and perennial cropping land is 1.3 million ha. The agricultural land is mainly concentrated in two major deltas (the Red River Delta in the North and the Mekong River Delta in the South), and in the narrow Central Plain. The irrigation projects in the country have a net design capacity to irrigate 2 million ha of the annual 5.5 million ha of farming land, including double and triple crops per year. Agricultural production in irrigated areas has made a great contribution to the food supply in the country. Although the net irrigated area occupies only 30 percent of the total cultivated area, 80 percent of agricultural products are grown in these areas. Intensive cultivation for increasing food production and food security has induced stress on land use including problem soils. In this regard, salt-affected soils play a significant role in food production and food security in Viet Nam.

Hungary: Total land area is 9.2 million ha of which total agriculture land is 6.3 million ha. Rainfed agriculture is 6.1 million ha, with only 167 000 ha under irrigation (142 000 ha from rivers and 25 000 ha from groundwater). Major production constraints include: extremely light texture (746 000 ha); acidity combined with erosion (348 000 ha); acidity combined with solid rock near to the surface (67 000 ha); salinity and or sodicity/alkalinity (757 000 ha); salinity or sodicity/alkalinity in the deeper layers (245 000 ha); waterlogging (161 000 ha); erosion (1 455 000 ha); extremely heavy texture (630 000 ha); erosion combined with acidity (348 000 ha); shallow depth (217 000 ha); with a total of 4 996 000 ha. Major cropping systems include: arable land (4,7 millionha); horticulture (109 000 ha); orchards (96 000 ha); vineyards (131 000 ha); and grasslands (1 148 000). Major crops include cereals, pulses, industrial crops, potatoes, rough and succulent fodder and vegetables.

Romania: Romania has a total land area of 23.8 million ha, of which 9.9 million ha of arable and permanent crops. There are 0.65 ha agricultural land and 0.41 ha arable land per inhabitant. Agricultural land capability classifications show that only 2.8 percent (411 000 ha) are class I, with very few limitations; 24.7 percent (3 656 000 ha) class II, with few limitations; 20.8 percent (3,082,000 ha) class III, with some limitations; 24.4 percent (3 613 000 ha) class IV, with severe limitations and 27.3 percent (4 034 000 ha) class V, with very severe limitations. In the last seven years significant changes of land use occurred: decrease of agricultural area especially of the arable crops with 768 978 ha and increase of grassland with 392 301 ha, vineyards with 20 879 ha and unproductive lands with 124 064 ha.

About 12 million ha of the agricultural land, including 80 percent of arable area, are affected by one or more limitations, such as frequent drought (7 100 000 ha), periodic waterlogging (3 781 000 ha), water soil erosion (6 300 000 ha including 702 000 ha landslides), wind soil erosion (378 000 ha), soil salinity (614 000 ha), moderate and strong acidity (3 352 000 ha), low and very low humus content (7 178 000 ha), low and very low available phosphorus content (6 246 000 ha), low total nitrogen content (4 812 000 ha), low available potassium content (694 000 ha), zinc deficiency (1 500 000 ha), chemical soil pollution (900 000 ha), pollution with oil and brine (50 000 ha), disturbance by various works (15 000 ha) and soil covering by solid wastes (18 000 ha).

Irrigation schemes were developed on 3.2 million ha, but by returning the irrigated land to former landowners under non-controlled conditions of agriculture, those lands have been abandoned, so that in 1998, the year most severely affected by drought, only about 300 000 ha were irrigated. Soil erosion control works were developed on 2.3 million ha, but also such works have been abandoned and largely destroyed after the application of Land Law No.18/1991.While the agricultural contribution to gross domestic product remained approximately the same, i.e. 19.9 percent in 1996, the budget share for Romanian agriculture continuously decreased: 13.4 percent in 1992 to 8.6 percent in 1996.

At the end of 1996, 45.1 percent of the total Romanian population (22.6 million) was in the rural area. The agricultural active population consisted of 3.3 million persons (34.6 percent, of which 51.3 percent women). By the application of Land Law No.18/1991, 10,693,577 ha of agricultural land were returned, up to a maximum 10 ha per family, to former owners. The present structure of the land ownership is represented by 71 percent with less than 3 ha per family, 18 percent with 3-5 ha per family, and 11 percent with more than 5 ha per family, with only subsistence agriculture possible. This has a negative effect on agricultural trade balance sheets, imports exceeding exports by twice the amount. Decreased average yields were recorded for all crops. At the same time, the areas cultivated with maize, wheat and sunflower increased, and those cultivated with soybeans, peas, and alfalfa decreased.

Turkey: Turkey is located in the centre of the three continents Asia, Europe and Africa, on the Alpine Orogenic Belt, with different kinds of magmatic, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. Collision of the three continents caused very irregular and high topography in Turkey. According to the climatological classification, Turkey is located on the subtropical belt of the Mediterranean Region, with average annual precipitation of 640 mm and average temperature changes between 0-20 °C.

Because of the geologic, climatic and topographic differences all soil orders except Oxisols can be found in Turkey. Aridisols and Entisols are very common soils in Turkey.

According to climatic and topographic conditions, Turkey is divided mainly into seven geographic regions. Because of the irregular topographic conditions and very high relief differences, shallow soil depth, soil erosion, high slope rates are the main constraints for the agricultural lands.

The size of Turkey’s land resources and climatic features allow for all kinds of grain, vegetables, fruit and forestry products to be produced in Turkey (total population is 62 million, of which 21 million in rural areas). The country has a total area of 77.8 million ha, of which some 28.5 million is used for arable farming. This area being considered the maximum exploitable. There are no significant areas of agricultural land still to be developed. Turkey has 8.5 million ha of economically irrigable lands. Presently only 4.5 million ha are under irrigation. Most of the area is used for rainfed agriculture. Studies showed that it is possible to obtain 4-5 times more yields through irrigation compared with rainfed agriculture. At present, irrigated agriculture that is on 17 percent of cropped land contributes 34 percent of agricultural GDP derived from crops. After completing the Southeast Anatolian Project (GAP), approximately 1.6 million ha more of agricultural land will be irrigated. The misuse of arable lands has resulted in erosion problems of international significance, and the soil resource is being depleted.

Argentina: The continental territory of Argentina covers a surface close to 280 million ha, of which 25 million ha are arable lands with wheat, rice, maize, barley and pastures for animal production being the major crops produced.

Based on meteorological, edaphic and water balance data, Argentina has been divided into three main natural ecological regions: humid and sub-humid (isohyet > 600 mm); semi-arid (between 400 and 600 mm isohyets) and arid (isohyet < 400 mm). The humid region has a precipitation that requires little or no additional water to obtain adequate crop yields and occupies approximately 68 million ha or 25 percent of the Argentina continental territory in the central northeastern part of the country. The semi-arid region extends from the Republic of Paraguay in the north to the Colorado River in the south and can sustain agricultural production with the aid of water conservation, dryland farming and/or irrigation; it covers 48 million ha. The semi-arid area can be divided into two different parts according to its particular climate situation and latitude: the northern (Chaco) and southern (Pampean) sub-regions. The arid region is formed by 170 million hectares (60 percent of continental Argentina) in the western and southern parts of the territory. This region must receive irrigation water to be able to sustain and produce crops. Total population is 35.7 million with only 3.7 million involved in agricultural activities. Irrigated soils in the country cover 1 650,000 ha. Approximately 36 percent (600 000 ha) of these soils are salt-affected, having different degrees of salinity effects. Irrigated soils are mainly located in the alluvial and/or colluvial river valleys of the arid and semi-arid regions of the country. Mendoza province presents the largest irrigated area with 443 500 ha (26.9 percent of the total irrigated) followed by the provinces of Buenos Aires and Santiago del Estero with 176 500 ha (10.7 percent) and 163 900 ha (9.9 percent), respectively.

Brazil: Brazil has a total area of 845 million ha, of which approximately 66 million ha under rainfed or irrigated agriculture (total population is 163 million, with 29.3 million agricultural population). The irrigated area is estimated to be 3.1 million ha corresponding to 4.5 percent of arable land. The Northeast of Brazil, the irrigation potential of which is 2.5 million ha, has actually only 700 000 ha irrigated land and the São Francisco River Basin, that is located in the semi-arid region, has an irrigation potential of 800 000 ha of which only 300 000 ha are under irrigation in both public and private irrigation sectors from rivers or groundwater resources. The Semi-arid region of Brazil, where most salt-affected soils exist has an estimated area of 90 million ha corresponding to 54 percent of the Brazilian Northeast and 11 percent of country territory. Considering the climatic conditions, it is characterized by concentrated rainfall periods (3 to 5 months), with annual rainfall varying from 400 to 800 mm with uneven distribution. The Brazilian semi-arid region is basically characterized by crystalline and sedimentary soils which are very dry, not well developed, shallow and stony with low water holding capacity. It is evident that irrigation has a high priority in this region as the only way for crop production to cover the requirements of people living there.

Cuba: The total land area is about 11 million ha, of which agricultural land is 4.5 million ha, most of which is under sugar cane, rice and pasture production. The main crop in the country is sugar cane. Irrigated agriculture covers 910 000 ha. Population is 11.1 million, of which 2 million are involved in agricultural activities.

Mexico: Total land area is 191 million ha, of which only 25.3 million ha are arable land, with a population of 95 million including 24 million involved in agricultural activities (year 1997). Water is clearly a major factor in all productive activities. The fast growth of population and the consequent demand for agricultural products reflects diminishing water quality and quantity. Irrigation in Mexico is a recently established practice. From 1927 to 1976, a total of 1,040 dams were built in Mexico, and most of the irrigation districts (ID) were created during the past 50 years. During the 1980s and 1990s, this trend changed towards the construction of smaller irrigation units. Approximately 50 percent of the irrigated land in the country is located in three states: Sinaloa (21 percent), Sonora (17 percent) and Tamaulipas (12 percent). At present, the irrigated land is about 30 percent of the total land devoted to agriculture, and produces 50 percent of the national production, and 65 percent of the agricultural exports.

Mexico has an average annual precipitation of 777 mm, and this is usually insufficient for successful crop production in most of the agricultural lands of the country. Annual precipitation in Mexico ranges from less than 500 mm in the north (in some cases as low as 100 mm), to 2 000 mm in the south (in some cases as high as 5 000 mm). This variability makes irrigation necessary to sustain commercial agriculture. The main source of irrigation water comes from surface water (70 percent) stored in reservoirs. Groundwater (25 percent) and wastewater (5 percent) complement the pool of this resource. This volume irrigates 6.1 million ha with a 50 percent global efficiency.

Rainfall water is utilized in situ in 13.5 million ha of rainfed agriculture, 40 million ha of forestry, and 80 million ha of livestock production. Approximately one million ha of cropped land per year are lost due to drought, and even though the ecological impact of drought has not already been quantified, it has been observed that it largely contributes to soil erosion, small farmer migration and overall land desertification.

Soil types are extremely variable in Mexico. Soil erosion by water is an increasing problem in Mexico. Topographic and climate conditions favour the natural erosive processes, and human activities have accelerated these processes to a large extent. A national average soil loss rate of 2.8 ton/ha/year has been estimated, which is equivalent to losing 536 million tons of soil material every year. Approximately 16 percent of the country is severely eroded, and 80 percent exhibits some degree of erosion. Currently, about 90 000 ha of land per year become unproductive

Egypt: The total land area of Egypt covers 99.54 million ha, of which approximately 96.5 percent are barren desert and the balance of 3.5 million ha is mostly irrigated agriculture land concentrated along the Nile Valley and its Delta. The rainfed agricultural area is confined to the coastal strip along the Mediterranean sea where a few drought resistant and low water consumption crops are grown (Nile water is 55.5 billion m³ of which 7 billion m³ are for civil use, in addition to 8 billion m³ drainage water mixed with fresh Nile water re-used for agriculture production, 5.0 billion m³ from groundwater and 2.0 billion m³ from rainfall)

Wheat is the most important cereal crop (59.4 percent) of annual demand followed by maize (23.5 percent) and rice (15.1 percent). Existing cropping index of almost 2.0 indicates a very high cropping intensity. The cropping pattern is affected by a number of factors including Government quotes, farmer food needs and degree of commercialization, as well as soil and climatological limitations. The most common practice is a three-year rotation based on the major crops in the country: cotton, clover and wheat (interspersed with broad beans, rice and maize).

Egypt is an arid to semi-arid region and can be divided into five main physiographic units (the Western Desert, Nile Valley, Nile Delta, Eastern Desert and Sinai Peninsula). Agriculture produces 22 percent of GDP. Population is 65 million and growing at a rate of 2 percent annually (of which 40 percent lives in rural areas). Per capita cultivated land becomes among, if not, the least in the world (0.13 acre/person). Low per capita income, compounded by the uneven distribution of national income, paves the way for poverty and hence insecurity. The average high per capita calories daily intake (3,231 Kcal) does not necessarily mean that food security has been realized for all the population (the lower 20 percent of the population gets only 1 406 Kcal/day).

Iran: Iran covers an area of 163 million ha in Southwestern Asia. The country can be divided into five main physiographic units; (1) the Zagros Mountains in the west, (2) the Alborz Mountains in the north, (3) the Central Plateau, (4) the Caspian Coastal Plain and (5) the Khuzestan and Southern Coastal Plains. The annual area under agriculture is about 19 million ha, of which 8 million are under irrigation, 6 million under dry farming and about 5 million are left fallow (population is 71.5 million, of which 20.5 million are involved in agricultural activities). Approximately 90 percent of the country is arid and semi-arid. The average annual precipitation ranges from less than 50 mm in the Central Plateau to more than 1 600 mm on the Caspian Coastal Plain, with an average of about 250 mm.

Salt-affected soils are wide spread in the country, particularly in Central Iran, where salinity is one of the main factors threatening sustained food production. According to the USDA Soil Taxonomy, the salt-affected soils of Iran are mostly classified as Aquisalids and Haplosalids. The Aquisalids are developed in the basins, where the ground water table is shallow. The Haplosalids are mostly formed on the fringes of the playas, having a deep watertable.

Irrigation, in addition to surface river water also includes 29 km³ of utilized water returned to the surface streams and groundwater each year. The total volume of water used by agricultural and industrial sectors is 81 km³ and 6 km³, respectively.

A wide variety of crops, such as, cereals, cold-season and tropical fruits, and fodder crops are grown for local consumption and export. The 1999 statistics show that the total agricultural produce of the country is about 65 million tons, including 45.5 million tons irrigated annual crops, 7.90 million tons rainfed crops and 11.60 million tons fruit. The average yields of these crops vary according to the geographical locations and climatic conditions. There is a large gap between the potential yield and the actual yield obtained by farmers. Climatic conditions (low precipitation and high evaporation), water availability and its quality, and soil salinity are the main factors, which prevent the achievement of high yields. It is estimated that in areas where salinity is present, the average yield losses are as high as 50 percent

Syria: Syria, with a land area of 18.5 million ha, of which only 30 percent is arable and perennial crop land, is divided according to the amount of rainfall into five zones:

Zone 1 receives an annual average of rainfall of more than 350 mm. The total area reaches 2,701,000 ha, covering 14.6 percent of the country area. Wheat, legumes and summer crops are the main crops.

Zone 2 receives 250–350 mm precipitation annually. Main crops are wheat, barley and summer crops. This zone occupies 13.3 percent of the country area, i.e. 2,470,000 ha.

Zone 3 receives 250 mm precipitation annually. This zone has mainly grain crops, however, legumes can be grown. It covers 7.11 percent of the total area (1,306,000 ha).

Zone 4: (marginal zone) receives 200-250 mm precipitation annually. Only barley can be grown and can be used as permanent pastures. This zone covers 9.91 percent of the total area.

Zone 5 with steppe land makes up 55.1 percent (10,208,000 ha) of the total area of the country and receives less than 200 mm precipitation annually. Main crops grown are: wheat, barley, cotton, lentils, vegetables, and legumes as well as olive, citrus and apples.

The total cultivated area reached 4,642,000 ha in 1996, of which 1,126,000 ha were irrigated lands and 3,516,000 ha rainfed. Although the area of arable crops slightly increased between 1975-1990 (5.48 to 5.63 million ha), it then decreased to the figure mentioned for 1996. This is due to variability and unreliability of rainfall and high potential evapotranspiration; the number of abandoned farms in irrigated areas has been increasing fast due to production constraints posed by soils mainly in gypsiferous soils and salinity development; and the extension of constructions and urban activities, building and new settlements on agricultural land in rural areas. At the same time the cost of agricultural production has increased greatly and modern employment opportunities removed many farmers from farms. As a result agricultural production is severely effected.

Irrigation from groundwater represents 54.4 percent of the total irrigated areas. Over 91 percent of the surface water is from the Euphrates (55 percent) and Tgria (36 percent) rivers. The gypsiferous soils with a high content of gypsum are in excess of 21 percent of the country and occupy extensive areas in the irrigated arid regions.

Tunisia: The total land area is 15.5 million ha of which 4.9 million ha are arable and perennial crops. Irrigated areas cover 380 000 ha, with a plan within the next five years to reach 410 000 ha including use of groundwater. Total population is 9.3 million, of which 2.4 million are involved in agriculture activities. Soil salinization is one of the causes of soil productivity decline in irrigated areas. The total land area is divided between annual crops which cover only 2.8 million ha, 2.1 million ha of pastures, in addition to 1 million ha forests. It is necessary to recall that the arid regions (Saharan zone not included) covers 6,290,000 ha, with 12 percent very degraded areas, 40 percent fairly degraded zones and 17 percent slightly degraded zones. The desert zones, occupy alone 3,330,000 ha (20 percent of total surface).

Associate members

Australia: Total land area is 768 million ha, of which 50 million ha are arable land. Irrigated agriculture covers an area of only 2.3 million ha. Population is 18.2 million, of which only 882 000 people are involved in agriculture activities.

Canada: The total land area is 922.1 million ha of which only 45.5 million ha are arable land. Irrigated areas are 710 000 ha. The population is 29.9 million ha of which only 848 000 are involved in agricultural activities. The "bread basket’’ of North America occupies a mountain rain-shadow spread across a vast intercontinental plain. Glaciers rode over the northern half of the plain during Pleistocene, resulting in surface layers of unconsolidated glacial and meltwater transported parent material. Before the soil was ploughed and cultivated, it naturally supported a short-grass prairie in hydrologic harmony with the region's semi-arid climate. Since cultivation wheat has become the dominant crop, with 90 percent of the grain production exported worldwide. Summer fallow is commonly practised to accumulate enough water in the soil for one or two subsequent years of cropping. These two agricultural activities, cultivation and summer fallowing, aggravate natural weather-dependent movements of dissolved salts into crop root-zones. Marine sediments underlying the glacial deposits supply the salts now giving rise to the root-zone salinity and associated dryland problems found throughout the region. Dryland salinity falls into one of two categories: visible or invisible. Both work against sustaining agriculture.

Colombia: Population is 38 million, of which only about 9 million are involved in agriculture activities. Approximately 80 percent of Colombia has a humid and tropical, or warm temperate climate. Of the 114 million ha total land area, there is an estimated 18.3 million ha of potential cultivable land, of which only 4.4 million ha are actually cultivated at present (1.9 million ha arable land and 2.5 million ha are permenant crops). Of an estimated 7.4 million ha of land, potentially irrigable or could be productive with installation of drainage or flood protection facilities, only an area of 750 000 ha are actually equipped with irrigation or drainage facilities at present. No available quantification data exists on the salt-affected areas nor identification of the type and extent of the saline problem.

India: Agriculture has been the prime mover of economic growth in the country and accorded highest priority since independence. It now contributes 28 percent of the gross domestic products and supports 46 percent of the labour force. As a result of sustained efforts food grain production has increased from 50.8 million tons in 1950-51 to 200 million tons in 1998. Not only production but the productivity of major food grain crops has considerably increased. There has been an annual increase of 4 percent in the case vegetables and 6 percent in the case of livestock products. The expected food grain requirement by 2020 is placed at 300 million tons. This additional production has to come from existing land and water resources, the availability of which for agriculture is decreasing.

The total geographical area of the country is 329 million ha, out of which 184 million ha is considered suitable for agriculture and the net cultivated area in 1994-95 was 143 million ha. The per capita availability of land for agriculture, which at present is 0.14 ha, will reduce further as population increases and land is claimed for urbanization and industrialization. Nearly 175 million ha of land suffer from various degradation processes like wind and water erosion, ravines, shifting cultivation, waterlogging and salinity. The utilizable water is only 690 BCM from surface and 432 BCM from groundwater. Agriculture is receiving 83 percent of the water supply. Water allocated to agriculture was irrigating a net area of 53 million ha whilst the gross irrigated area was 78 million ha in 1994-95. The gross irrigation potential projected for 1997 was 89.44 million ha. About 50 percent of the area is irrigated through groundwater.

There are climatic and soils variation in the country, therefore the crops grown also differ from region to region. In the country the important crops according to area are rice (22.6 percent), wheat (13.2 percent), sugarcane (2.2 percent), maize (3.2 percent), sorghum (7 percent), pearlmillet (5.8 percent), groundnut (4.6 percent) and cotton (4.3 percent). Though there are several constraints to further improvement in production and productivity, the future projections indicate that India would be able to provide food security if land and water resources, particularly the salinity of irrigated lands, can be properly managed.

Italy: Total land area is 29.4 million ha of which 10.8 are arable and permanent crops (8.1 million ha are arable land and 2.7 are permanent crops). Population is 57.3 million of which only 3.5 are involved in agriculture activities. Irrigation covers 2.7 million ha. In Italy, some hazards of degradation/desertification can be recognized in the Southern regions, i.e. Abruzzo, Molise, Campania, Puglia, Basilicate, Calabria and especially in Sardegna and Sicily. Sardegna and Sicilia are the regions with the higher levels of degradation including salinization. In 1995, the Italian Government proclaimed the state of emergency for water in Sicilia and Sardegna, caused by the considerable decrease in rainfall and subsequent reduction in water stored in reservoirs (In Sicily the mean annual rainfall is usually less than 500-600 mm against mean evapotranspiration of 1000-1200 mm). The need for irrigation with available saline-sodic groundwaters is evident in Sicily, considering that in the last thirty years no more than 300 million m³ of good quality water has been available for irrigation against a need of about 1 600 million m³.

Spain: The total land area is 50 million ha of which 15.3 arable and 5 million permanent crops. Population in 1997, was 40 million, with only 3.5 million involved in agriculture activities. Irrigation covers 3.5 million ha.

The Comunidad Valenciana (where most salt-affected areas in Spain exist) located at the East of Spain, under a typical semi-arid Mediterranean climate (rainfall ranging between 500 to 230 mm and ETP between 950 to 1200 mm from North to South) extends along 485 km of coastal Mediterranean Sea.

Two main relief units can be distinguished: mountain areas of Triassic and Jurassic age (limestone and dolomite, quartzitic sandstones, conglomerates, clays and gypsiferous rocks) and flat coastal areas of the Quaternary (conglomerates, gravels, sands, silts, clays and peat formations). The alluvial and continental sediments, transported to the sea, have been modelled by the sea currents and formed several coastal lagoons (deltas, freshwater lagoons and sabkhas).

The Research Unit of Geomorphology and Salt-affected Soils of the Universitat de Valencia has performed since 1988, several studies on genesis and cartography of salt-affected soils in Valencia and in other countries. Its activities have contributed to the development of regional policies regarding the management and conservation of natural salt-affected ecosystems.

Sudan: Total land area is 237.6 million ha, of which only 13 million ha are arable crops. Irrigation covers an area of 2 million ha. Population in 1997 was 28 million, of which 18 million were in rural areas.

Uzbekistan: Republic of Uzbekistan is the largest independent state in Central Asia, with a total land area of 41.4 million ha. Two river basins are found in Uzbekistan. These basins form the Aral Sea Basin: i) the Amu-Darya basin in the south, covering 86.5 percent of the country; and ii) the Syr-Darya basin in the north, covering 13.5 percent of the territory.

Physiographically, Uzbekistan can be divided into three zones: i) the desert, steppe and semi-arid region covering 60 percent of the country, mainly the central and western parts; ii) the fertile valleys (including the Fergana valley, Samarkand oasis, Tashkent, etc) that skirt the Amu-Darya and Syr-Darya rivers and iii) the mountains in the east (Gissaro–Alay and Tien-Shan ranges).

Irrigated agriculture is the backbone of the Uzbek economy (total irrigated area is 4.3 million ha), accounting for 35 percent of GDP and 45 percent of employment. In the rural areas, irrigated agriculture and the processing of agricultural products is by far the main source of employment and incomes for the population (total population in 1997 was 23.7 million). The most important crops are cotton (which accounts for about 50 percent of the export earnings), wheat (1.7 million ha), potatoes, vegetables and fodder crops. Irrigation is vital under the prevailing arid climatic conditions.

Total potential agricultural land in the Uzbekistan is 27 606 200 ha, from which 4 700 000 ha is arable land. About 95 percent of agricultural products are grown in the irrigated area.

High rate of population growth and non-productive use of limited water resources for irrigation led to decreasing of irrigated area per capita 1980: 0.23 ha, 1998: 0.17 ha. Although Uzbekistan has achieved food security since its independence in 1991, the fall in production of cotton for the past few years has been of serious concern to the Government. The average yields of cotton and wheat are low and the cost of production high by international standards. However, the socio-economic objective for the future is to produce as much food as possible in Uzbekistan, with a minimum of 3 000 calories per day per person. The necessary increase in food production will, therefore, require a major effort, including finances for investment and management of both land and water.