FAO.org

Capture fisheries

Reduced yield

Access higher value markets; shift/widen targeted species; decrease fishing capacity/effort; reduce costs/increase efficiency; diversify livelihoods, exit fishery

Increased yield variablity

Diversify livelihoods; implement insurance schemes; promote adaptive management frameworks

Change in distribution of stocks

Migrate fishing effort/strategies and processing/distribution facilities; implement flexible allocation and access schemes

Sea level change, flooding, and surges

New/improved physical defences; managed retreat/accommodation; rehabilitation and disaster response; integrated coastal management; early warning systems and education

Increased dangers of fishing

Weather warning systems; improved vessel stability/safety/communications, insurance

Social disruptions/ new fisher influx 

Support/develop local management institutions; diversify livelihoods

Climate influenced boom and bust cycles of freshwater & marine small pelagic stocks

Tailored management measures to capitalize on irregular abundance (e.g. dryland fisheries); protection of key brood stock dry season refuges habitats/spawning areas in freshwater systems

Aquaculture

Damage to farming facilities and  loss of stocks due to extreme weather events

Improve farm siting and design; individual/cluster insurance; use of indigenous or non-reproducing stocks to minimize biodiversity impacts

Production  impacts from rising temperatures 

Better water management, feeds, husbandry; selective breeding/genetic improvements; adjust harvest and market schedules 

Production  constraints  due to water shortage/stress and drought conditions

Improve efficacy of water usage, including for crops used as aquaculture feedstuffs; shift to coastal aquaculture, culture-based fisheries; select for short-cycle production; improve water sharing

Changing  salinity from sea level rise and other circulation changes

Move systems for sensitive species upstream; introduce marine species or species with greater salinity tolerance; use hatchery seed, protect brood stock and nursery habitats

Eutrophication/upwelling, harmful algal blooms

Better planning; farm siting; regular monitoring; emergency procedures

Increased virulence of pathogens, new diseases due to stress and rising  temperatures

Better management and husbandry to reduce stress; biosecurity measures; monitoring; appropriate farm siting; improved treatments and management strategies; genetic improvement for higher resistance

Acidification impact on shell formation

Adapt production and husbandry; move production zones, species selection

Reduced availability fishmeal  and fish oil impacts supplies/price

Fish meal/oil replacement; better feed management; genetic improvement for alternative feeds; shift away  from carnivorous species; culture of bivalves and seaweeds

Post-harvest, value addition

Extreme event effects on infrastructure/ communities

Early warning systems and education; new or improved physical defences; accommodation to change; rehabilitation and disaster response

Reduced/ more variable yields, supply timing

Wider sourcing of products, change species, add value, reduce losses, costs; more flexible location strategies to access materials; improve communications and distribution systems; diversify livelihoods

Changing temperature, precipitation variability other effects on artisanal processing

Better forecasting, information; change or improve processes and technologies

Trade and market shocks

Better information services; diversify markets and products

Minor*

Significant**

Major***

Inland/coastal fishing, usually traps, lines, gathering

Major global  importance for subsistence food and secondary income, primary income and livelihoods in a number of countries; All species targeted  in range of water bodies; Approx 10% global production, 200 million people US$5 billion or more

I - Changing species mix with differing tolerances; ecosystem disruptions; altered fishing conditions;

R - Adapt to catch different species; use different locations, timing, possible brood- stock/nursery areas

I - More flood and drought impacts; increased die-offs; some weather risks possible reduced access by poorer groups; less household food;

R - more marketing of output; possible stocking/restocking

I - Flood, drought, temperature and salinity impacts; losses of stocks in range of locations;

R - with fewer substitution options (species, location) for local beneficiaries,food security support measures may be needed; adjust management measures

Inland/coastal recreational fishing

Fishing for food and/ or leisure activity in many areas; strong economic multipliers in wealthier markets; Around 200 million people, US$30 billion

I - Changing species mix with differing tolerances; shifting locations

R - adapt to different practices, places, timing; adjust stocking/restocking; improve habitats; adjust management

I - Wider impacts;

R - more use of stocking; habitat modification; protection of key stocks; political influence to regulate, invest in ecosystem protection and/or improvement, reserve areas; reduce take for food.

I - Wide range of impacts; losses of stocks in specific locations; changes of use of key water areas  

R - greater development of designed/ managed fisheries; limited access to biodiversity reserves 

Small-scale fishing with passive gear - traps, gill nets, longlines

Significant global sector; mainly coastal; major source of market and domestic supply; low capital and energy needs; around 15% global output, 40 million people, US$25 billion

I - Shift of species mix, timing, locations

R - adapt gear, timing; access/ develop alternative markets; possibly adjust management (e.g. size restrictions, close seasons)

I - Larger disruptions to stocks, locations, timing; higher fishing risks; 

R - further adaptation/ development of gear, timing, access; possible advantages to those with greater research and development options; more use of management controls 

I - Further disruptions; higher fishing risks but low cost; ease of use of gear maintain its preferred usage; may become more significant in low-impact and fuel-efficient fishing 

R - further adaptation; shifting markets; more management controls 

Small-scale fishing with active gear - dredges, seines, trawls

Important globally; mainly coastal range for fish, shellfish species; key source of higher-value market supply; higher capital and energy needs; around 10% global output, 15 million people, US$15 billion

I - Changing species mix, timing and locations; more effort required per catch

R - adapt gear, timing; adjust management; reduce energy costs by improving returns

I - More disruptions to stocks; higher risks, poor catches and high cost may make some fishing unviable; more management limits

R - possible move to passive fishing options or need to develop alternative livelihoods

I - Further disruptions and higher risks of non-viability of some systems; greater pressure on management

R - alternative fishing options; develop higher value markets; move to alternative livelihoods

Commerical draftnet, long-line fishing 

Key pelagic and other fisheries/species activity in some regions, commonly open seas, international scope; around 1% global output, 0.5 million people, US$ 1.5 billion

I - Changes in distribution across wider zonal areas; more effort/time per catch

R - expand gear size; develop markets for bycatch 

I - Greater disruptions and unpredictability;

R - extend effort responses; improve stock monitoring/location options; move to higher values; improve bycatch options 

I - Further disruptions; greater chance of non-viability;

R - better targeting possibly smaller units, higher value and market quality; 

Commerical dredge, trawl fishing

Important demersal and shellfish species activity in many regions, more localized; around 5% global output, 1 million people, US$7.5 billion

I - Changes in species, timing, location; more effort/time per catch

R - adjust or develop gear, practices; add value to product; develop markets for bycatch

I - Greater disruptions of stocks, timing, location; extend responses

R - improve stock monitoring/location options; move to higher values; improve bycatch options

I - Further disruptions; greater chance of non-viability;

R - better targeting possibly smaller units, higher value and market quality

Commercial purse-seine fishing

Important for major pelagic stocks in key regions, mainly marine, highly efficient if effectively targeted; around 10% global output, 0.1 million people, US$0.1 billion.

I - Changes in distribution across wider zonal areas; more time to locate catch; possible dispersal; more time and effort per catch, but efficiency still relatively good; 

R - increase stock protection 

I - Further disruptions; stock unpredictability; dispersal problems;

R - improve stock monitoring/location options; possibly move to higher market quality and values

I - More extensive disrupt-ions, stock dispersal issues; 

R - increase stock monitoring/ location efficiency; move to higher value and market quality; greater chance of non-viability, capacity reduction;

Freezer/trawler /factory vessel fishing 

Linked to a number of commercial fishing types, may also take up small-scale fishing inputs, in many areas; around 1% global output, 0.1 million people, US$0.05 billion

I - Distribution and fishing activity changes

R - adjust operations for changing patterns of activity/catches; change trip length, landing locations

I - Wider disruptions of species/locations 

R - more flexible operations; further develop processing/product options; possible reduction in viability

I - Further disruptions for stocks and catch options, greater chance of non-viability

R - possibly aim for higher value and market quality; may need to decommission.

Minor*

Significant**

Major***

Seabed based mollusc culture, artisanal and commercial

Traditional in wide range of coastal areas, some mechanized, household consumption or markets; around 2% global output, 1 million people, US$ 1.5 billion

I - Small changes in productivity, spatfall, substrate quality, disease and predator interactions. 

R - adjust seeding locations and harvesting patterns; better health monitoring

I - Greater changes in productivity, substrate quality, ecosystems; some stocks less viable 

R - adjust locations; manage substrates; adjust seed options; change predator management, harvest patterns

I - Notable changes in productivity; greater damage risks; safety issues in some sites; changes in stock viability 

R - adjust sites, practices; select better seed; improve value and returns; possibly shift to suspended culture systems

Commercial suspended mollusc culture

Expanded in coastal zones in many latitudes, commercial markets; around 3% global output, 0.5 million people, US$3 billion

I - Small changes in productivity, natural spatfall; more exposure risks; change in disease (including red tides) and predator interactions

R - slightly adjust locations; modify systems; put monitoring and early warning in place; alter management practices, harvest cycles

I - Greater ecosystem changes, extreme events, spatfall, disease and predator issues; higher risks; some sites less viable, others more so

R - Improve monitoring systems; strengthen farming systems; adjust locations, management practices; ensure reliable hatchery seed production, harvesting

I - Much greater ecosystem changes, damage risks, safety issues; some areas become unviable

R - Move to new areas needed for production; strengthened systems; better management approaches; reliable seed production from hatcheries; insurance; ensure alternative livelihoods and options

Extensive warm-water coastal pond/lagoons

Traditionally unfed some fertilization, wild or stocked fry, traps or nets; some molluscs; around 0.5% output, 0.2 million people, US$ 0.5 billion

I - Slight changes in productivity, species, temp ranges, possible runoff, fertility; some disruption to natural spawning, algal biomass 

R - change harvesting; greater inputs/stocking, management; possible expansion with sea level rise

I - More changes, less predictability; runoff, salinity changes; possible anoxia, fish kills; other areas less productive; some damage risks

R - change harvesting; where feasible, greater management, stocking, small cages, other inputs; water exchange

I - Greater ecosystem disruptions; flood and storm damage potential; productivity risks; species changes 

R - change harvesting; if feasible greater physical protection; intensified management; small cages and other subsystems; water exchange 

Partially fed inland/coastal pond systems

Mainly inland, intensified with increased stocks and yields; range of practices and species mixes, water exchange, aeration; around 15% output, 1 million people, US$ 25 billion

I - Slight changes in temperature ranges, salinity, water exchange, productivity, species performance, disease risks; 

R - adjust stocking/ feeding/harvest strategies; more water management /backup systems; monitor system/health more closely

I - More water quality changes, less stability; possible anoxia fish kills, disease and productivity loss; some damage risks

R - change stock/feed/ harvest strategies; more physical protection, water management, possible reuse; possibly intensify stocking, management; monitor environmental conditions and early warning systems 

I - More ecosystem disruptions; flood and storm damage potential; productivity risks

R - if feasible to continue, increase physical protection; Improve monitoring and early warning systems; intensify water management, production; shorten production cycles; change species mix 

Integrated farm units

Usually inland ponds/paddies, with plants, animals; range of options; around 0.5% output, 0.2 million people, US$ 0.5 billion

I - Slight seasonal/ecosystem changes; marginal shifts in productivity; disease risks in some or all components

R - adjust integration mix, possibly increase use; improve management

I - Greater changes, temperature and water balance; greater instability potential

R - possible new aquatic/other species mixes, timing; consider wider options for adapting other systems; monitor environmental conditions and early warning systems

I - Larger disruptions; flood and drought risks

R - possible relocation/reorganization, develop new components and markets; reduce crop cycle times; Improve monitoring and early warning systems

Completely fed inland/coastal pond systems 

Gradually intensified or purpose planned; highly stocked fish, shrimp, water exchange, aeration, treatment; around 3% output, 0.5 million people, US$ 5 billion

I - Temperature, salinity and other water quality instabilities; disease risks

R - better system management, backup systems; adjust species; possibly intensify and/or reduce crop cycles; monitor environmental conditions and early warning systems 

I - More challenging instabilities; greater infrastructure risks

R - modify structures; higher levels of feed and water management; possible water reuse; link with integrated systems; monitor environmental conditions and early warning systems

I - Greater risks of physical and ecological disruptions 

R - possible redesign /reconstruction/relocations; possible expansion in salinized land areas; improved monitoring and early warning systems

Intensive tank and raceway systems

Highly intensified, controlled, high water exchange, mainly hatcheries and high value fish, inland and coastal; around 0.05% output, 0.02 million people, US$.01 billion

I - Localized management issues of temperature and water supply

R - modify production cycles, feed regimes; more water treatment; better health and hygiene management; possible species and strain adjustments

I - Possibly greater challenges of water supply and quality

R - greater water( full recycle) and feed management; shifts in species/strains and timing of production cycles; less use for on-growing, mainly hatcheries and nurseries

I - Much greater potential disruptions/supply/quality risks

R - possible shifts in species/ seasonal cycles; full water recycle; flow-through on-growing less common. 

Intensive cage systems

Widespread globally inland and coastal, mainly fish, intensive fully fed, wide range of systems, species; around 5% output, 0.5 million people, US$10 billion

I - Temperature, salinity, oxygen level changes; possible algal blooms; pathogen interactions; marginally increased risks

R - better stock, feed and disease management; risk-based site selection, some relocations; monitor environmental conditions and early warning systems 

I - Greater range of ecosystem variability; higher risks; storm damage, losses.

R - closer monitoring, local and system-wide early warning; change species and strains; short-cycle production; more relocations

I - Wider range of disruptive effects; some areas too risky unless very short-cycle, high value crops 

R - possible new areas in lower-risk zones with system wide risk reductions; improved monitoring and early warning systems

IMTA systems

Coastal, linking intensive fish cages/ ponds with molluscs and marine plants at range of scales; <0.05% output, 0.01 million people, US$ 0.001 billion

I - Temperature, salinity, oxygen level changes; marginally increased risks

R - Some adjustments to balance components, timing and outputs; ensure interacting component physically secure; avoid negative environmental feedbacks

I - Greater range of ecosystem variability; higher risks; storm damage, losses.

R - Further adjustments to component mixes, cycle times; more robust physical systems; possible relocations in some areas; also possible scope for expansion as risk-reduction strategy.

I - Increased disruptive effects

R - More targeted integrated design and component choice across a range of systems to manage range of risk and ensure resilience; may be expanded if these systems can be further developed.

Recycle aquaculture systems

Fresh or salt water, tanks or ponds with substantial water treatment/reuse; mainly hatcheries or high value species; 0.05% output, 0.01 million people, US$0.3 billion

I - Relatively small risks associated with intake water supplies, power and infrastructure security

R - may require system/operating adjustments; some open systems may use more recycle to stabilize water quality and supply.

I - Increased risks related water supply, power and infrastructure 

R - more open systems may turn into higher water reuse; higher external variability may require greater system control, backup provision, high recycle rates; trade-offs with energy costs likely to become more important

I - High risks related water supply, power and infrastructure

R - Increase recycle rates to maximize independence from external environment; external factors such as site, infrastructure security more important; possible relocations to purpose designed systems.

Minor*

Significant**

Major***

Small landing facilities

Inland or coastal, various small structures, some with shelter, water, ice, fish handling areas, cool or cold storage, some with vessel/ gear repair/store; handling some 30% of global output

I - Possible access disruptions; risk of physical damage; breakdown of facilities; higher costs of protection, maintenance or repair; some may become non-viable if more distant from fishing areas

R - options to select and concentrate landings need to be investigated 

I - More significant disruptions with greater consequences; greater possibility of dislocation from fishing areas; higher costs and lower local value retention

R - Investment in facility upgrades would require effective climate-proofing

I - Potentially major dislocations from resource areas; greater physical risks; increasing potential for non-viable operations

R - may need specific investments in climate-proofed facilities and infrastructure networks

Fresh product supply systems

Range of inter-connected storage, handling, transport elements linking first sale to markets, retail outlets; around 30% of global supply

I - Resource access changes

R - some relocations, adjustments, potentially added costs; impacts of shifts to aquaculture.

I - Greater disruptions to supply and quality,

R - reorganization of elements; more aquaculture material; some systems may be less viable; more processing needed to protect quality 

I - Further extension of disruptions

R - need for relocation, re-organization, changing product streams, markets, process options; more investment and competition impacts 

Small-scale drying/smoking activities

Primarily linked with artisanal fishing, simple racks, kilns, packaging, local transport; around 10% of global supply

I - Resource access issues; also water, fuel wood other inputs; unseasonal rainfall affects solar drying and salting

R - some shifts in location, markets; improved systems/operating procedures; covering of drying racks

I - Greater impacts in similar issues/themes

R - greater potential for change in locations, supply chains, impacts on producers and communities.

I - Further extension of risks and disruptions; greater livelihood impacts

R - options for improving markets, adding value, improving prices, more significant

Commercial port/handling unit

Larger, more developed, higher specification facilities for landing, marketing, distribution, normally in cold chain, with defined standards; services for vessels/ gear etc; around 70% of global output.

I - Risks of resource access/higher costs of supply, balanced by continued potential to add value, protect investment, maintain supply chain expectations; risks of physical damage and quality disruptions.

R - Aquaculture may gain in importance.

I - Greater risks of disruptions, non-viability, particularly from reduced throughput in multiple-sourced centres

R - possible greater aquaculture role; some relocations, or more flexible systems/operations; costs of improving infrastructure may need to be recovered

I - More extreme impacts of resource dislocation, physical risks 

R - potential shifts to vessel-based handling and processing, landing to less specialized centres; new, lower-risk centres may also develop, and the number of risks may decline

Commercial processing systems

Wide range of facilities operating to defined health/ hygiene standards meeting market needs; range of secondary products; around 30% of supply

I - Resource access and quality changes

R - some relocations, adjustments; potential added costs; possible shifts to aquaculture

I - More disruption to supply and quality; more aquaculture material; some systems may be less viable

R - need to develop wider range of products, by-products, other options

I - Further disruptions

R - need for relocation, reorganization, changing product streams, markets, process options; more investment and greater competition impacts 

Prepared food manufacturing and distribution 

Specialist food centres using/adding value to aquatic products, linking by range of transport to highly co-ordinated distribution systems

I - Resource access/quality changes; impacts on other raw materials

R - some relocations, adjustment; potential added costs; possible shifts to aquaculture; changes in product forms

I - More disruption to supply/ quality; more aquaculture material; some units may be less viable

R - need to develop wider range of products; adjust aquatic food content; create new markets

I - Further disruptions

R - possible need for relocation, reorganization, changing process options, product streams, markets; more investment and greater competition impacts