S. D. Rangnekar and D. V. Rangnekar

We got interested in writing this paper after going through the 3 main papers and various comments. First of all, we wish to compliment INFPD and FAO, Rome, Italy, for this initiative, and particularly Dr. Gu�ye for co-ordinating this Electronic Conference, which provides excellent opportunity for exchange of information. What stimulated us to write is � (1) Absence of any paper from India or reference to poultry production in India (2) Most papers and references are based on studies and extremely few on development initiative based on studies and suggestions of farmers (3) Holistic view of production systems and perceptions of the families have taken back seat and emphasis is on �Poultry�, their genetic make up or disease problems, etc. Thus, more of a commodity approach is taken. With this paper we hope to initiate dialogue on development initiatives based on studies and farmer (women�s) perceptions, priorities and suggestions.

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We feel it is appropriate to make brief mention about poultry production in India, since it is acclaimed as a success story of rapid growth without Government�s financial support. Annual growth rate of poultry production is higher than any other agriculture commodity � about 10 % for eggs and 15 % for broilers. Annual production is reported to be 33,000 million eggs, which ranks fifth largest in the world. Annual broiler production has reached 530 million and is ranked 22nd in the World. For a developing country this is a laudable achievement.

The total poultry population of India is estimated to be 700 million of which about 10 to 15 % are indigenous or native birds, which accounted for 50 % of poultry population about 25 years ago. Around 1970 the native birds contributed almost 50 % of total egg production. However, the picture varies considerably between regions and states of the country. Large commercial poultry farms are concentrated in 5 to 6 states in the country viz. Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tamilnadu, Haryana, Punjab and Delhi. There are many states where native fowl still account for 30 to 40 % of egg production or poultry population.

Growth in poultry production from a development perspective. � Poultry production in India has increased rapidly in the last two decades, but this �growth� should be delineated from �development�. When examined against some of important development issues the growth in poultry seems have many negative characters. An attempt is made to highlight some of these aspects in Table 1 below:

Table 1: Comparative picture of traditional and modern poultry production in relation to development issues.

The above mentioned aspects are not, in any way, intended to denigrate contribution of commercial poultry, its growth has contributed to domestic production. We wish to point out that the system is suitable for a relatively developed area and resource rich persons. The system is not appropriate for underdeveloped rural areas and resource poor, underprivileged families � which account for majority of rural population.

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Being associated with Non-Government Development Organisations we have been studying production systems and issues related to various systems (Rangnekar, 1992, 1993). We learnt that systems in rainfed, underdeveloped rural areas and particularly with underprivileged resource poor families, are more complex. We also learnt that the subsystems are highly inter-linked and each activity/production is taken up or adopted with multiple objectives. It is crucial to understand the �real objectives� and perceptions and preferences of the families. Thus, some of the objectives of the studies were to understand the �whole system� and to learn from farmers "what and why they are doing". Such learning may help to decide � (a) whether there should be any intervention and, if so, (b) what kind of intervention is appropriate [to begin with] and (c) what are their preferences/suggestions. An attempt was to be made to combine the rural families experiences/perceptions and available scientific information to decide on appropriate intervention.

Tribal areas offer a challenge to development planners and managers. This is an underprivileged group, having a different way of life and customs. Tribal people have a strong clan feeling, they were hunters and gatherers, turned into producers. Special schemes and fund provisions are made by the Government to bring about �rapid development�. Like many other schemes �Special Schemes for Poultry Development� were thrusted on them in the past. The aspect which attracted us for undertaking studies was reports of failure of most of poultry development schemes. It was also reported that the improved birds provided to the tribal families were killed or died and that these families are not interested in poultry production. While studying production systems in tribal areas we found that almost every family has a few birds, it was difficult to find a family without poultry. The tribal women indicated that keeping poultry is traditional and very useful. Hence, it was worth studying the reasons of failure of these schemes and find out alternatives.

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Methodology adopted can best be described as repeated discussions with groups and individuals, accompanied by participatory exercises (ranking, transect walk, listing, etc.). With women tactful approach was needed to get full and factual information and �kitchen talk� and general discussion on traditional art and music was very effective. Use of forms and notebooks was avoided � since it deters them from free conversation. For free conversation, rapport and credibility are important and hence the studies were carried out in villages where the organisation is involved in development activities. Studies continued over a period of several months and information is gathered in bits and pieces and a few of the field staff were also involved. Thus this was �Relaxed Rural Appraisal� or RRA conducted with �Participatory Approach�. A total of more than 600 families from 5 districts were involved in the studies.

The studies were conducted in a few randomly chosen villages of five districts of tribal belt in western India which lies along the interstate boundaries of Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat states. This belt lies in the Aravali hill range which has good forest cover, poor communication, very little irrigation and an average rain fall of about 700 mm (mostly in 4 months of the year). The rainfall decreases from South to northern parts of the range. Livestock-poultry are mostly non-descript. Although there are no large and modern markets in tribal belt, except at some district headquarters, there is well-established traditional system of weekly markets. There are no major industries, except mining (in a few pockets). Livestock services are sparse, with very poor coverage.

Tribals live in clusters of hutments spread out in the hills and villages with large number of houses near each other and distinct village boundaries are not seen in tribal area. Land holdings are small and spread out with considerable variation in soil structure and fertility (between valleys and hill slopes). Agriculture depends largely on animal power and human labour, since mechanisation is very limited. Most of the area is mono-cropped, however in areas with better rainfall, i.e. 900-1000 mm, two crops are tried. Mixed cropping (cereal and legumes) is traditional. Majority of farmers use seeds of local varieties of crops and adoption of hybrid seeds is very low. A few tribal farmers, having irrigation facility, have adopted cash crop cultivation i.e. spices, vegetables, fruits, etc. It is also common to see mixed livestock along with poultry. Cattle and goat are most common, while a few tribal farmers keep buffalo. Duck keeping is not common, except in high rainfall areas.

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An interesting feature observed in tribal areas is the major role of women in crop-livestock production. Women not only manage the animals (and, of course, take care of the family and children) but also market the produce and animals (Rangnekar, 1992). Men have some involvement in crop production, however, majority of them migrate to developed areas in search of work. Illiteracy is high, however, women are knowledgeable about behaviour and characteristics of livestock and poultry as well as the constraints and local resources (Rangnekar, 1992). Accessibility to livestock services is very poor, tribal farmers have to depend largely on traditional systems of breeding and health care, except those in peri-urban areas (Rangnekar, 1995).

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Salient findings of studies and observations made during last few years will be summarised. Aspects helpful in decision making process about interventions will be mainly discussed. Initial observations on family poultry were presented, briefly, in the XXth World Poultry Congress (Rangnekar and Rangnekar, 1996).

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More than 90 % tribal families from 35 villages in the five districts, where observations were taken, maintained backyard poultry. However, the number of adult birds raised by a family was variable. Highest number was seen in households located in peri-urban areas. In rural areas, about 60 % families were found to possess 6 to 8 adult birds � with followers. However, the number varies with season and period due to several factors � like disease, sale, hatching, etc. Majority of tribal families (90 %) keep native coloured birds, a few have mixed birds. A few tribal families from peri-urban areas were found to maintain hybrid birds for egg and broiler production. As mentioned earlier, poultry production in tribal families was totally women�s domain, who manage production as well as selling of birds and eggs (Rangnekar, 1996).

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Women indicated that poultry keeping is traditional and very useful for the family. From various participatory exercises conducted in tribal families of the study area, five most useful aspects of poultry keeping are summarised as follows:

Source of small cash;
Source of nutritious food to the family at very low cost;
Enables proper celebration of important events, festivals, worship of Goddess;
Entertaining important guests, relations, officials, etc.;
Sport (Cock-fight).

Discussions revealed that women had specific and logical reasons for continuing to maintain native and coloured birds. Series of discussions and ranking exercises were carried out to understand women�s perceptions and major reasons for preferring native coloured birds, and the outcome is reported as follows:

Low investment, maintenance cost and risk;
Good local demand and higher price for birds and eggs of native fowl;
Easy to manage and handle � not much problem once the birds grow up;
Traditional liking.

Thus, it can be seen that reasons for preference for native coloured fowl range from economic to social as well as behavioural aspects. Flocks can be raised with low investment and some women from very poor families were found to (re-)build stock (which has been wiped out) using ingenious ways. They exchange 1 or 2 adult birds, which remained with them, for a few chickens, raise them and again get more chickens � so as to possess desired number.

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Birds are maintained mainly on household kitchen waste, supplementary grains and feed resources eaten by scavenging in/around the house. The kitchen waste is usually gathered in a container or a bowl placed in backyard, the birds know the time and come over to feed themselves. It is a common practice to offer some grains, in the afternoon when women are a bit free. Grains of the crops grown by the family are usually offered. However, very few families offered protein supplements. Birds usually scavenge (in their words graze) in a defined areas, in most cases, around the house or in the nearby farm plot. Women feel that scavenging is important � not only to provide nutritious feed for birds but also the specific taste and colour to meat and eggs. The insects and plant products eaten by the birds are the main contributors. They were aware that if enough scavenging material and kitchen waste is not available the health of the birds will be effected and have observed weak birds. However, they lack awareness about available supplements.

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Assessment of productivity required considerable patience, time and tact. Repeated discussions based on indirect questioning could provide some ideas of egg production, number of eggs consumed, sold and hatched and number of chicks produced, mortality in chicks and the birds sold. When observations were added up a wide range was noted for egg production viz. 75 to 110 eggs in a year. However, about 75 % observations were around 80 eggs a year. Laying is in clutches and not continuous. On an average 20 % eggs are consumed by the family (for various purposes) about 30 % are sold and 50 % are hatched. Women considered sale of birds (chicks or adult birds) to be more important than sale of eggs � since they get better return for a bird. Most of the women put odd number of eggs for hatching and prefer black or dark coloured brooding hen. Varying figures were quoted for hatchability ranging from 75 to 95 % - however, majority of women reported about 80 % hatching. Repeated discussions also revealed that about 15 % eggs are lost, since they are laid at improper places � more so in case of families who do not provide proper housing facility.

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Productivity is adversely effected by losses due to a variety of factors, which were well described by the women. The major cause of loss is mortality in chicks � which averaged 40 % - more in some years and less in others. Ranikhet or Newcastle disease is the major cause of mortality. In all the five districts, major outbreaks are reported to occur every two or three years. Transect walk around various hutments gave good idea of losses, by observing chicks of different ages (which run around with hens). Coccidiosis was also reported by some veterinarians as a minor cause of mortality. The second major cause of losses is predation � by winged or four and sometimes two legged creatures. Women, however, emphatically state that native birds can protect themselves better than the white hybrid birds.

Lack of proper housing facility causes losses of eggs. Sometimes the eggs are laid in bushes or some corners of the house. However, many families do provide shelters and many were found to have innovative ways of housing the birds. Bamboo baskets are most commonly used for housing and these are placed on the floor or under the roof or on a pole (the native birds learn to climb up, not the white birds). Very few families were found to provide watering facilities which may have adverse effect on chicks.

There is lack of data and surveys/studies on disease problems in family � native chickens.

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Discussions regarding developing poultry production brought forth interesting reactions which depended on location and gender.

Most men showed interest in poultry keeping when the number of birds increased, they were reserved on this aspect and their responses were location-specific. Almost all rural women keeping poultry declined when the number of birds was increasing. This indicated that they cannot manage larger flock sizes. These women have to manage the house as well as farming. Another reason is limitation of resources, particularly the feed. Women from peri-urban areas were interested in increasing the number since they feel they can earn well.

All tribal families gave highest priority to control of mortality in chicks, men and women both indicated that any development assistance should give first priority to effective disease control. According to them disease control alone can increase productivity substantially. Major cause of mortality is identified as Ranikhet or Newcastle disease and effective vaccine is available against this disease, all over the country. The vaccine is effectively and extensively used by the commercial poultry producers, since decades.

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The tribal women from rural areas mentioned that they could not get the benefit of this vaccine and more than half of them were not aware that such an effective control measure is available. About 30 % of women feel that the disease is God�s curse and is uncontrollable. However, women from peri-urban areas were aware and have used the vaccine. The Ranikhet disease problem is a good example where technical solution is available but is not used, due to lack of proper approach to organising delivery of services. According to Government Veterinary Officers and the tribal women, reasons of the lack of effective control of Newcastle disease in rural-tribal areas are summarised as follows:

Transport facility not easily available;
Difficulty to maintain proper cold chain;
Number of birds per family small and hatching dates for different families not known � hence one vaccine vial will be grossly underutilized;
Farmers do not co-operate by bringing the chicks;
Tribal women indicated that they are never consulted about organising vaccination campaigns;
There is lack of awareness and confidence about the effectiveness of vaccine (Some had bad experiences).

Study of the aspects mentioned above clearly indicates need for a participatory and decentralised approach and creating awareness for effective control of Ranikhet or Newcastle disease. Unfortunately, thermostable vaccine has not been introduced/tried in India so far.

Tribal men and women from a number of villages reported use of traditional medicine, Tinospora cordifolia whenever outbreaks are reported. This is a creeper and extensively used in Ayurvedic human and animal medicine. For control of poultry diseases, the tribals crush the creeper in water and offer the water to birds. This is reported to reduce severity of disease. The report needs further study and validation.

About 1/3 of tribal women expressed need for improvement in housing and have realised that some losses can be controlled and productivity improved to some extent.

Some tribal families from peri-urban areas expressed interest in trying commercial hybrids or their crosses on a small-scale (ranging between 500 to 2000 birds). The latter figure is from those families, who maintained 4 to 500 birds and have benefited. However, most of these families prefer broiler production, in view of faster turnover.

Many families felt (about 50 %) that there may be improvement by improving feeding and watering but they are not very sure about benefits. There is need to study feeding practices, feed resource base and undertake on-farm trials.

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Unfortunately very little attention has been paid by researchers and development planners, towards study of traditional family poultry production systems in India. Reliable baseline data is also not available on number of birds and their productivity. Khan (1999), while reviewing research work in one of the rare papers that we came across, has highlighted this lacuna. He mentions that there are 26 % recognized breeds of indigenous fowl in India, but genetic studies are lacking as are done in South East Asia.

According to him, two type of indigenous fowl are to be found in India � one a heavier bird which is meat or game type and a smaller bird which lays 60-90 eggs/year. He mentions that there can be considerable improvement in egg production (up to 139 eggs a year) by selection and better feeding. However, there is need to try this under field conditions and on-farm research is lacking in livestock field. Attempts have also been made in India to develop crossbreds and synthetics by research institutes and also in private sector. Information is summarised in Table 2 below:

Table 2: Varieties developed in India for rural poultry (with indigenous base)

The above mentioned varieties have been introduced in different pockets of India, particularly in parts of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh states. However, a widespread impact is not seen. In the state of Madhya Pradesh the Krishna-J bird has shown promising results. Another native bird �Kakaknath� very popular for its meat quality is being developed by the State Government. Some studies have been conducted on this breed and a hatchery established to propagate Kadaknath. However, in most cases there is a lack of concerted and integrated effort with due participation of farmers (particularly women). The authors know about only two projects, which are with Danish assistance, wherein specific efforts at studying traditional systems are being made and based on findings interventions are decided. These projects are in the states of Tamilnadu and Madhya pradesh and have adopted participatory approach and encourage women participation.

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The BAIF Research and Development Foundation is a development NGO involved in rural development in six states of India (in selected pockets). Starting with livestock development, BAIF is slowly evolving towards integrated programme, after studying the systems, farmers� perceptions and priorities. Much of the involvement is in rainfed, underdeveloped pockets. Besides, out of about half a million families, more than 60 % are underprivileged. An inverse relationship between socio-economic status and contribution from small animal and family poultry is observed and hence attention was given to understand these systems and farmer preferences. Moreover, tribal women from groups established through water resource and other development programmes started suggesting their preference for poultry development.

The studies clearly indicated the need for group action, extension measures to create awareness, encourage initiatives undertaken by women to control Ranikhet disease. Pilot efforts were initiated last year in 15 villages of tribal area of Rajasthan state and 10 villages of Gujarat state, in India, during last year (1998). The vaccination has become successful due to involvement of women group leaders. BAIF helps by maintaining stocks of vaccine and the needed cold chain. The women group leader provides information about hatching in different clusters of hamlets and vaccination is arranged through trained persons. These women groups are formed under Self Help Group Programme, aimed at developing economic activities for women (vegetable production and small animal production are some of the preferred activities). A few selected women are being provided training in poultry diseases, vaccination and health control. It is proposed that women groups would take over the activity in another one year. Seeing the effectiveness and efficiency/accessibility of services, the women are prepared to pay for it.

Women from peri-urban areas have shown interest in keeping broilers and crossbred chickens. Help is being arranged through Government�s training and loan-subsidy programme for chicks and housing.

For future strategies � further studies and discussions with tribal women are initiated on three aspects:
- Feeding pattern and feed resources and possibilities of improvement using locally available supplements;
- Housing system and need for improvement;
- Marketing by women groups;

Furthermore, it is proposed:
- to extend the activity to 25 to 30 more villages � who have shown interest in organising themselves for developing family poultry.
- to set up orientation programmes for field officers and veterinarians towards skills (including participatory approach) for developing traditional poultry and similar production systems, in underdeveloped areas.
- to undertake disease surveillance in order to understand the health picture of family poultry. - to take up validation of traditional treatment methods used in poultry � especially the use of Tinospora cordifolia.

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An attempt has been made to provide a comprehensive picture regarding traditional family poultry production in India. However, we do not claim that we could provide all the information � since we do not have very good access to literature and reports as information dissemination is poor in India � like in many other countries.

The paper would also indicate that there are many similarities between family poultry production systems in Africa and India, so also the constraints, as can be seen from papers of Sonaiya et al. (1999) (see Introductory paper of this electronic conference). Exchange of views and experiences, on a continuous basis, would be mutually beneficial. Results of the pilot projects of BAIF, which cover about a thousand families, would be evident by next year as also the results from other 2-3 projects by other organisations. It would be useful to exchange experiences between South Asian and African countries. Bangladesh, with its interesting projects on family poultry, can provide the lead.

Feeding systems/pattern and assessment of resources for family poultry is a useful and interesting field of applied research. While we have taken some initiatives, we would appreciate receiving references or if possible reprints of reports on such studies conducted in other countries. We wish to look for limiting factors and local supplements.

Last, but not the least, we wish to clarify that the readers should not carry the impression that we are wedded to Tradition. We recommend keeping an open mind and not to make haste for change and not to consider Traditional system as totally abstruse. Traditions and systems keep changing � but this should be slow and in stages. All aspects do not need change.

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Khan, A.G. (1999): Systems of rural poultry production. Proceedings, Seminar on Veterinary Profession: Past, Present and Future, held at Veterinary College Jabalpur, 17-19 February 1999, India, pp 43-47.

Pradhan, P.K., Jape, A.S. and Rangnekar, D.V. (1993): Traditional livestock keeping systems in tribal areas of Gujarat and Rajasthan. Proceedings, International Workshop on Feeding of Ruminants on Fibrous Crop Residues held at National Dairy Research Institute Karnal India, 4-8 February 1991, New Delhi, India, pp. 470-476.

Rangnekar, D.V. (1993): Research methodology for crop animal systems. Proceedings, Crop Animal Interaction Workshop organized by IRRI, 27 September to 1st October 1993, Manila at Khonken, Thailand.

Rangnekar, D.V. (1995): Developing livestock services delivery system by an NGO Livestock production and diseases in the tropics. Proceedings, VIII International Conference of Institutions of Tropical Veterinary Medicine (Ed. Zessin K. Pub), DSE & ZEL, Berlin, Germany, Vol. II, pp. 569-573.

Rangnekar, S.D. (1992): Women in livestock production in rural India. Proceedings, 6th AAAP Animal Science Congress, 23-28 November 1992, Bangkok, Thailand.

Rangnekar, S.D. (1996): Role of women in poultry production. Proceedings, Vol. 4, 20th World�s Poultry Congress, 2-5 September 1996, New Delhi, India, pp. 473-474.

Rangnekar, D.V. and Rangnekar, S.D. (1996): Traditional poultry production systems - a need for fresh look from rural development perspective. Proceedings, Vol. 3, 20th World�s Poultry Congress, New Delhi, India, pp. 405-409.

Rangnekar, S.D. and Rangnekar, D.V. (1992): Involvement of women and children in goat keeping in some villages of Gujarat and Rajasthan. Proceedings, Vth International Conference on Goats, New Delhi, India.

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