Executive summary

The transition process from a planned economy to a market economy in the Central and Eastern European Countries (CEECs) has affected farming systems in several ways. Creating conditions for sustainable agriculture will be a huge challenge in the CEECs in the coming decade. Bearing in mind this ultimate goal, the report aims at:

Sustainability, sustainable farming systems and sustainable agriculture have been defined in quite a number of ways and on various levels. Three dimensions commonly referred to are ecological, economic and social in character. The definitions suggested by G. Conway (Conway, 1987) offer a good conceptual base. According to this author, an agroecosystem’s performance can be defined with respect to four goals: productivity, stability, sustainability and equitability. Productivity is defined as the output of valued product per unit of resource input; stability is defined as the constancy of productivity in the face of disturbing forces that arise from normal fluctuations and cycles in the environment; sustainability is defined as the ability of an agroecosystem to maintain productivity when subject to stress or shock; and finally, equitability is defined as the evenness of the distribution of the agroecosystem’s productivity among the human beneficiaries. All four concepts can be seen as reflecting the wider dimensions of sustainable farming systems.

Conway’s definition has been expanded in scope, using a wider definition of farming-system properties by McConnell and Dillon (FAO, 1997), which includes:

      1. Productivity
      2. Profitability
      3. Stability
      4. Diversity
      5. Flexibility
      6. Time-dispersion
      7. Sustainability
      8. Complementarity and environmental compatibility.
This wider definition of properties was found to reflect the various dimensions of sustainability even better than Conway’s previous definition. Conway’s inclusion of equitability is, however, appropriate for the review and should be added to the list above as the ninth criterion.

To "operationalize" sustainability issues in farming systems, the above concepts as a whole can be taken as a starting point, both on the farm and social levels. Agroecosystems can be divided into different levels, ranging from one single plant being the smallest level, to a crop or a field on the following levels. Cropping and livestock systems form farming systems, which are organized in turn on even higher levels, culminating on the global level. It has been suggested that the farming system level is the highest level on which sustainability, as a relevant criterion, can be formulated empirically. In spite of this empirical characteristic, sustainability on a conceptual level needs to be defined at the highest system-level and then conceptually proceed downwards.

In the analysis, it is possible to use checklists, while putting sustainability into operation, in order to ensure that all sustainability issues have been included. Examples of such checklists have been presented in the section "Factors affecting the sustainability of farming systems". The checklists can be used to identify constraint on sustainability on a local or regional level. The checklists, while tentative, may function as starting points for defining sustainability problems in selected CEECs. It is important to note, however, that these lists need not be comprehensive in every detail. They are intended to function as auxiliary lists, not as rigid definitions of the components of sustainability.

The process of transition has implied profound changes for most CEECs, which in one way or another affect the farming systems. An example of such changes is the establishment of ownership rights upon land for those entitled to it. The privatization process has, however, not been completed in every case. Privatization has implied a change in the structure of the agricultural industry from massive state farms to smaller-scale, individually operated family holdings. Markets have been liberalized to varying degrees and opened up to foreign trade in agricultural products by reductions in custom tariffs and export bans. The complexity of regulations governing the implementation of privatization and related transaction costs related to the withdrawal of assets is an important factor that delays decollectivization. Much land is still operated by collectives or state farms.

From the survey on the sustainability of farming systems in the five selected countries, it is quite obvious that many farming systems are not on a sustainable track. Environmental and economic problems limiting productivity growth are common in virtually all countries. The review concludes that many issues must be dealt with in order to improve the state of sustainability in the CEECs. Low profitability makes it difficult for farmers to take environmental factors into account. In order to improve profitability and stability, privatization programs must be completed. Property rights to land need to be clearly established through the entitlement of ownership rights so that farmers will dare to make investments in land, facilities and equipment. Functioning credit markets are needed, possibly through establishing schemes of micro-loans. Extension systems, input and equipment supply and infrastructure are insufficient. Vocational schooling must be improved. CEECs should, with care, be given market access to the EU. Environmental problems are widespread and require urgent action so that they will not be aggravated further.

The most common environmental problems are the following:

    1. Erosion and land degradation;
    2. Degradation of waterways because of improper nutrient management systems and poor storage facilities for manure and other harmful emissions;
    3. Gradual increase in the nutrient deficiency of many soils;
    4. Contamination of soil with pesticides and heavy metals;
    5. Salinization of soils;
    6. Biodiversity loss.
However, contrary to some past practices, the use of excessive amounts of inputs is no longer common. In most cases sustainability depends upon the management systems for nutrients and chemicals. Nutrient leaching may be significant in spite of rather low application doses due to inappropriate nutrient management systems.

Formulating and adapting codes of good agricultural practice are starting points for reducing environmental problems caused by agriculture. However, countries may have quite different possibilities and prerequisites to adopt such practices. In some cases it may be necessary to complete the privatization process and build up the infrastructure, extension systems and credit possibilities available to farmers before these good agricultural practices can be adopted.


 
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