Poland is quite a big producer of agricultural goods with a huge agricultural area. The total arable area is 18.5 million ha, which represents about 59 percent of the land. In 1996 there were more than 3 million farms in Poland, of which 2 million were individual agricultural firms (Karaczun, 1999). The most typical feature of Polish agriculture seems to be its large number of small holdings. Woś (1999) notes
that there are about 1.5 million small farms in the size category of 1-3 ha that mainly produce agricultural products for self-consumption. Around 150 000 farms are said to be medium-sized, and there are 4 000 large farms. Like elsewhere in the CEECs, the 1990s have been a time of agricultural transformation. Until 1992 three sectors could be distinguished in Polish agriculture: a state sector, a peasant sector and a co-operative sector. During the transformation period a fourth sector of a private and capitalistic character has emerged.
The peasant sector has always been the dominant sector in Poland. According to Woś, its share in total land area has increased from 76.3 percent at the end of the 1980s to 82.1 percent in 1996 because of land transfers from the state sector and the co-operative sector. In the transformation process, the medium-sized farms especially have decreased in number, while the proportion of small-sized farms (1-2 ha) has increased from 18.7 percent to 22.6 percent. The proportion of large farms (15 ha and larger) has also increased from 6 percent to 8.5 percent. It can be noted that the change in ownership structure is less pronounced than in the majority of the CEECs, since private farms had already made up a large proportion of all farms before transition.
The structure of so-called individual farms is presented in Annex Table 11. The figures in Table 11 differ somewhat from the ones cited by Woś. One reason for these differences could be that farms smaller than one ha are not included in Table 11. However, the overall picture is quite similar. The rural population in Poland as a whole is much the same as directly after World War II. In 1997 the rural population numbered 14.7 million inhabitants compared with about 15.5 million in 1946 (Klodiński and Wilkin, 1999). According to Woś, 21.3 percent of the whole population or half of the rural population was attached to agriculture in 1996.
Halamska mentions that the former state farms had determined the way of life for 435 000 employees and their families (together about 2 million people). (Halamska, 1999) Many of them have now been marginalized. By this Halamska indicates a larger share of unemployment and exclusion from the development of society. Concerns about the polarization of agricultural structure have also been presented by Wilkin (Wilkin, 1997).
The majority of small farms are run according to the "logic of survival", which means self-financing, minimizing risk, employing traditional methods and planting traditional crops. The plots are farmed by extensive methods, and harvested yields have been 40-50 percent lower than the Western European average. Light, sandy soils make up about two-thirds of the land. About 60 percent of the soils have a pH below 5.5, which means they are acidic. There are deficits of water for crops and animal husbandry, and soil erosion is affecting 60 percent of the area (Nowicki, 1993).
Substantial differences between agricultural regions exist in the country. The differences are economic, social, ecological and ethnic. According to Woś (1999), a future membership in the EU will mean that agricultural farms must guarantee ecological balance, i.e. between livestock and plant production. This may pose big problems for former state farms that are specialized in grain production and which have been characterized by monocultural cropping.

According to Szemberg, the changes in the structure of individual farms as a result of the transition process can be summarized by the tendency of the smallest and the biggest farm-sizes to increase, while the medium sized farms (2-15 ha) have decreased (Szemberg, 1999).
No significant changes in the area cultivated between the 1986-1990 period average and 1996 have occurred. However, the numbers of the animals have decreased substantially in the same period. The number of dairy cows has decreased from 4.9 million to 3.5 million, and the number of ewes has dropped from 2.5 million to 0.3 million. In addition, the numbers of pigs, horses and chickens have declined (Karaczun, 1999).
The estimated area of farmland under low-intensity farming systems in Poland is 2.735 million ha out of a total area of 19.135 million ha, or 14 percent (Bignal and McCracken, 1996, p. 33 referring to Beufoy 1994). Poland has one of the highest diversities in species, ecosystems and landscapes in Europe (Karaczun, 1999). This has to be accounted for when designing plans for sustainable farming systems.

Erosion, soil exhaustion and degradation of water seem to be the most urgent problems facing the environment in Poland. Karaczun cites figures for widespread wind erosion, water erosion and gullying (Karaczun, 1999). Despite measures taken to decrease it, the danger of soil degradation has in fact not diminished. Erosion continues to be the basic form of soil degradation.
Another form of degradation is soil exhaustion resulting from simplified crop rotation, monoculture, reduced organic fertilizing and the repeated use of the same fertilizers and plant protection chemicals. The introduction of a market economy has resulted in decreased fertilizer use. The use of artificial fertilizers decreased drastically in the beginning of the 1990s, from an annual amount of 175.2 kg/ha of N, P and K in 1985 to 71.4 kg/ha in 1995. After the mid-1990s average fertilizer doses have started to increase. They were 88.3 kg/ha in 1997 (50 kg N/ha and 17 kg P2O5/ha). Liming has stayed at previous levels, possibly because of subsidization. Despite this fact, acidification is a serious problem, and the amount of liming and fertilizers is insufficient (Karaczun, 1999).
It is possible to calculate so-called nutrient balances based on the inputs imported to farms and the outputs of nutrients exported from farms. The difference between imports and exports shows the nutrient balance that is equal to a nutrient surplus. Such balances can be calculated on a national, regional or farm level. Sapek (1996) has calculated such balances for N for Polish agriculture. In spite of the low input levels of nutrients, the N-balance on a national level displays a considerable nutrient surplus, on average 68.41 kg N/ha in 1991. This was identified as N-losses. Such total losses of N from agriculture in 1991 amounted to 1.29 million tonnes. There was significant variation depending upon the region and the farmer’s skill, which should be considered. N-losses on a national level were 96.7 kg/ha in 1985, 93.37 in 1990 and 68.41 in 1991.
Similar figures for P has been presented by Karaczun referring to Sapek (Karaczun, 1999; Sapek, 1997). The P-surplus in 1984/85 was 19.1 kg/ha, calculated on the national level, and 45.7 kg/ha in 1993/94. Sapek also calculated N-balances on the farm level on three kinds of farms: two localized on sandy soils (arable fields) and one on peat soils on sand (permanent grassland). (Sapek, 1996) The farm-level N-balances exemplify the need to develop a fertilization-advice service, which could help increase the benefits of farmers and protect water quality.
Nutrient runoff from Polish agriculture to the Baltic Sea is a concern not only for Poland, but also for other countries. According to the third Baltic Sea Pollution Load Compilation, Poland was the country that emitted the most P and N into the Baltic Sea in 1995. Poland accounts for 37.7 percent of total P-emissions into the Baltic Sea and 28.2 percent of total N-emissions. In 1990-1995 the increase of N-emissions is estimated at 75 percent. P-emissions from Poland have decreased (– 4 percent) during the same period (HELCOM, 1999). The figures include not only agricultural non-point pollution but also point source pollution from municipalities and industry. One may add that the environmental conditions of the Baltic Sea have been a concern for several decades (Gren et al., 1997).
Gren et al. cite the figure for the total N-emissions from agriculture as 219 100 kg N/year. Of this amount, 90 500 kg (or 41 percent) are claimed to be of Polish origin (Gren et al, 1997). In addition, Nowicki mentions that in 1989 as much as one-third of the municipal and industrial sewage was dumped into surface waters without any treatment, and another 35% after only preliminary treatment (Norwicki, 1993). Taking into account the seriousness of the ecological state of the Baltic Sea, it is an international concern that nutrient inflows of N and P from all bordering countries be reduced.
Karaczun mentions the improper storage of manure as one important reason for N-losses from agriculture (Karaczun, 1999). In 95 percent of all farms, the manure is stored directly on the ground. As a consequence, N leaches out into waters. Liquid manure is stored in small leaking tanks. Storage of products and fodder is also improper and results in losses of nutrients. Most farms are also not equipped with sewage systems and the waste is disposed into the ground or into ditches or even unused wells.
A detailed local study by Banaszuk and Wysocka from the mire-valley landscape in the Narew Landscape Park found considerable amounts of anthropogenic and natural nutrient runoff of N, P and Fe from human sources (Banaszuk and Wysocka, 1998). Three basic hydro-geochemical processes relating to the runoff were identified. The highest values were achieved in the samples taken from places close to relatively intensive agriculture. This interpretation was made partly as a result of the mucking process for displacement of N and P into deeper layers of peat soil, from where N is easily released and not taken up by vegetation. Tree-covered belts situated on the valley margin play a significant role in stopping pollution.

The majority of existing farms are technically backward and fragmented since private farms were not encouraged to develop during the socialist period. This has contributed to a bad economic condition on farms. The bad economy poses a threat to soils since crop systems are simplified, the cheapest-possible fertilizers are used and overexploitation is common (Karaczun, 1999). One may add that waterways are probably threatened for the same reason. Improper storage and disposal of manure is likely to be a consequence of inadequate financial resources for farmers, inadequate infrastructure, lack of a sewage system, low education levels and the lack of or inefficient extension.
The introduction of so-called good agricultural practices on farms in Poland is probably one way to reduce the threat posed to soils and waterways. Since Polish agriculture has been private to a large extent, the experiences from West European countries could probably be used extensively for formulating policies aiming at the introduction of such management systems.
Florkowski have studied the attitudes of Polish farmers toward privatization through an ordered probit model (Florkowski et al., 1997). They found that a higher level of education, increasing farm size and a less-mixed production profile affected the attitude toward privatization positively.
To summarize, erosion, soil exhaustion and degradation of water are urgent environmental problems in Polish agriculture. The change in the structure of Polish farms is less pronounced than in most other CEECs because private farming has been the dominant ownership form even during the socialist period. Farmers need management systems for manure, better fertilizing systems and training in good agricultural practices. Technical training in general is important. Means to deal with the fragmented structure of agriculture are needed.