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Implementation of the Agreement on Agriculture (AoA)

Agricultural export commodities of developing countries most affected by high levels of support and protection in OECD countries

Table 1: Domestic support
Table 2: Export Subsidies
Table 3: Tariff Peaks
Table 4: Tariff Escalation

Over 90% of export subsidies and trade-distorting domestic subsidies as notified to the WTO are granted by OECD countries and among them the Quad countries (US, EU, Japan and Canada) account for the bulk of such subsidies.

How do policies in these major importing countries affect exports by others, and developing countries, in particular?

Domestic support - High levels of trade-distorting domestic subsidies lead to excess production and thus limit market access for others, as well as contribute to subsidized exports.
Export subsidies - These subsidies displace competitive exports, depress world prices and thus reduce farm incentives in non-subsidizing countries.
Tariff peaks - The adverse effect is obvious.
Tariff escalation - This phenomenon limits the export of value-added, processed products. Also, thus, continues export dependency on a few primary products.

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- 最新情况

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受到经发组织政策影响的商品

Table 1: Domestic support

Commodities are ranked on the basis of the percentage PSE for OECD countries as a whole (using OECD's Producer Support Estimates).
Rice receives the highest support in percentage PSE term (82%), followed by sugar (51%) and milk (45%).
Meat (beef & veal, pig meat and poultry meat combined) receives high domestic support in the EU. The total PSE for meat in 2000 was EUR 27 billion with the highest support to beef & veal.
In the US, sugar, wheat and milk attract high subsidies, with % PSE of 50 on sugar.
In Japan, rice, wheat and milk are commodities receiving highest %PSE.

Commodities	Total OECD		EU		US		Japan		Canada
Commodities	% PSE ¹	PSE (million USD)	% PSE ¹	PSE (million EUR)	% PSE ¹	PSE (million USD)	% PSE ¹	PSE (million Yen)	% PSE ¹	PSE (million CAD)
Rice	82	28057	11	93	40	717	88	2064	n.c.	n.c.
Sugar	51	6240	50	2699	50	1180	43	42	n.c.	n.c.
Milk	45	38780	43	16752	45	10164	80	565	55	2349
Wheat	41	17524	46	9903	48	5344	86	98	15	584
Sheep meat	40	3764	53	3550	16	62	n.c.	n.c.	n.c.	n.c.
Maize	35	13923	41	2972	33	9165	n.c.	n.c.	24	281
Beef & Veal	32	24318	78	18949	4	1370	32	194	9	518
Oilseeds	30	7642	42	2085	27	4747	56	24	15	419
Poultry	19	6458	53	4662	4	715	12	24	2	39
Pig meat	17	8119	19	4622	4	452	52	245	8	276

Note: ¹ As a percentage of gross value of farm receipts calculated at market prices.

n.c. refers to non calculated

Source : Agricultural Policies in OECD Countries, Monitoring and Evaluation, 2002.

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Table 2: Export Subsidies

Although skimmed milk powder (SMP) and other milk products attract high levels of export subsidies in some OECD countries, these products are little exported by developing regions and hence the negative effect should be small. But this practice hurts these importing countries in other ways, e.g. import surges.
Poultry meat receives high levels of export subsidies in the US and EU. Asia developing region accounts for a large share of poultry export (21%) and so stands to be affected negatively.
Asia's share in sugar export is also high (13%) and so suffers from export subsidies by others. Latin America, including Caribbean region, is also large exporter of sugar.
Meat, oilseeds and grains - commodities that receive high levels of export subsidies - are also exported heavily by Latin American countries.

Product group with significant export subsidies ¹	Shares of developing regions' exports of the product to total world exports²
Skimmed milk powder	SSA (0.1), Asia Dvlpg (2.5),Lat Am (2.5), Carib (0.0), Nr East (0.6)
Poultry meat	SSA (0.0), Asia Dvlpg (20.7),Lat Am (9.6), Carib (0.0), Nr East (0.4)
Wheat	SSA (0.1), Asia Dvlpg (1.9),Lat Am (8.5), Carib (0.0), Nr East (1.7)

Product group with significant export subsidies	Shares of developing regions' exports of the product to total world exports
Cheese	SSA (0.0), Asia Dvlpg (0.5),Lat Am (1.3), Carib (0.0), Nr East (0.7)
Beef	SSA (1.7), Asia Dvlpg (0.6),Lat Am (13.0), Carib (0.0), Nr East (0.1)
Sugar	SSA (6.9), Asia Dvlpg (13.2),Lat Am (26.7), Carib (7.7), Nr East (2.5)
Grains (maize,barley,etc)	SSA (0.4), Asia Dvlpg (7.1),Lat Am (10.8), Carib (0.0), Nr East (0.6)

JAPAN

Product group with significant export subsidies	Shares of developing regions' exports of the product to total world exports
No export subsidies.	-

CANADA

Product group with significant export subsidies	Shares of developing regions' exports of the product to total world exports
Wheat	SSA (0.1), Asia Dvlpg (1.9),Lat Am (8.5), Carib (0.0), Nr East (1.7)
Flour of wheat	SSA (1.8), Asia Dvlpg (13.4),Lat Am (5.1), Carib (0.8), Nr East (8.8)
Oilseeds	SSA (1.5), Asia Dvlpg (5.4),Lat Am (24.7), Carib (0.0), Nr East (1.1)
Skimmed milk powder	SSA (0.1), Asia Dvlpg (2.5),Lat Am (2.5), Carib (0.0), Nr East (0.6)

Note :

The abbreviations stand for the following:

SSA - Sub-Saharan Africa, Asia Dvlpg - Asia Developing, Lat Am - Latin America,

Carib- Caribbean, Nr East - Near East including North Africa

Tariffs are MFN tariffs only

¹ Including export subsidy element in export credit

² Indicates shares of the developing regions' total exports of the product to the world as a percentage of the total world exports of that commodity

Source : WITS, FAOSTAT

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Table 3: Tariff Peaks

Sub Saharan Africa exports nearly 85% of its total sugar and 72% of its total beef to the EU. These two products face tariffs over 100%.
Similarly, high tariffs in Japan on sugar (over 100%) and pineapples and oranges (tariffs between 20-49%) affect the Asian developing region that has high export share.
The high tariffs imposed by EU on meat (beef and sheep meat) limits market access for the Latin American region.

Product groups with high tariffs	Shares of developing regions' exports to the market¹
Products with tariffs between 20-40 %
Sugar	SSA (2.0), Asia Dvlpg (3.7),Lat Am (12.5),Carib (5.1), Nr East (0.1)
Products with tariffs between 10-19 %
Oil of soyabean	SSA (13.7), Asia Dvlpg (0.2),Lat Am (0.2), Carib (1.4, Nr East (0.0)
Beef	SSA (0.0), Asia Dvlpg (0.2),Lat Am (6.9), Carib (0.0), Nr East (83.9)
Cotton lint	SSA (0.1), Asia Dvlpg (3.6),Lat Am (6.5), Carib (11.2), Nr East (1.3)
Oranges ²	SSA (0.0), Asia Dvlpg (1.7),Lat Am (0.0), Carib (4.7), Nr East (0.1)
Poultry meat	SSA (0.3), Asia Dvlpg (0.1),Lat Am (0.3), Carib (6.6), Nr East (0.0)

Product groups with high tariffs	Shares of developing regions' exports to the market
Products with tariffs above 100 %
Sugar	SSA (85.2), Asia Dvlpg (0.2),Lat Am (2.9), Carib (93.8), Nr East (0.8)
Beef	SSA (72.0), Asia Dvlpg (1.0),Lat Am (51.6), Carib (6.3), Nr East (0.0)
Products with tariffs between 50-99 %
Sheep meat	SSA (63.3), Asia Dvlpg (0.7),Lat Am (49.2), Carib(8.6), Nr East (1.2)
Wheat	SSA (1.0), Asia Dvlpg (0.3),Lat Am (0.8), Carib(87.4), Nr East (15.4)
Rice	SSA (7.2), Asia Dvlpg (4.0),Lat Am (1.0), Carib(1.7), Nr East (18.9)

JAPAN

Product groups with high tariffs	Shares of developing regions' exports to the market
Products with tariffs above 100 %
Rice	SSA (0.0), Asia Dvlpg (2.1),Lat Am (0.0), Carib(0.0), Nr East (0.0)
Wheat	SSA (0.0), Asia Dvlpg (0.0),Lat Am (0.0), Carib(0.0), Nr East (0.0)
Sugar	SSA (0.0), Asia Dvlpg (11.3),Lat Am (0.0), Carib(0.0), Nr East (0.0)
Products with tariffs between 50-99 %
Pigmeat & beef	SSA (0.0), Asia Dvlpg (0.1),Lat Am (4.8), Carib(0.0), Nr East (0.0)
Products with tariffs between 20-49 %
Pineapples & oranges	SSA (0.0), Asia Dvlpg (8.6),Lat Am (0.0), Carib(0.0), Nr East (0.0)
Hides & skins	SSA (1.4), Asia Dvlpg (0.9),Lat Am (0.3), Carib(0.0), Nr East (5.9)
Oil of soyabean	SSA (0.0), Asia Dvlpg (0.9),Lat Am (0.0), Carib(0.6), Nr East (0.0)

CANADA

Product groups with high tariffs	Shares of developing regions' exports to the market
Products with tariffs above 100 %
Poultry meat	SSA (0.0), Asia Dvlpg (0.0),Lat Am (0.0), Carib(1.2), Nr East (0.0)
Products with tariffs between 30-60 %
Sugar	SSA (0.0), Asia Dvlpg (0.1),Lat Am (3.2), Carib(0.0), Nr East (0.0)
Wheat	SSA (0.0), Asia Dvlpg (0.0),Lat Am (0.0), Carib(0.0), Nr East (0.0)

Note :

The abbreviations stand for the following:

SSA - Sub-Saharan Africa, Asia Dvlpg - Asia Developing, Lat Am - Latin America,

Carib- Caribbean, Nr East - Near East including North Africa

Tariffs are MFN tariffs only

¹Indicates share of developing regions exports to the market as a percentage of exports to the world.

² Data for SSA includes fresh oranges only

Source : WITS, FAOSTAT

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Table 4: Tariff Escalation

Tariff escalation is highly pronounced in meat, in the four main markets. This affects the export of processed meat products, notably by Latin America region to EU and Japan.
Sub Saharan Africa depends heavily on the EU market for exports of products like meat, oils, sugar, cocoa, coffee and oranges and pineapples, products that face significant tariff escalation.

Product groups with significant tariff escalation	Shares of developing regions' exports to the market¹
Beef and poultry meat ²	SSA (0.0), Asia Dvlpg (0.1),Lat Am (3.1), Carib (6.6), Nr East (0.5)
Oil of soybean	SSA (13.7), Asia Dvlpg (0.2),Lat Am (0.2), Carib (1.4, Nr East (0.0)
Sugar	SSA (2.0), Asia Dvlpg (3.7),Lat Am (12.5), Carib (5.1), Nr East (0.1)
Cocoa	SSA (1.8), Asia Dvlpg (33.7),Lat Am (28.0), Carib (5.4), Nr East (0.7)
Oranges and pineapples ³	SSA (0.0), Asia Dvlpg (24.5),Lat Am (51.7), Carib (4.6), Nr East (0.1)

Product groups with significant tariff escalation	Shares of developing regions' exports to the market
Meat (beef, pig meat and poultry) ⁴	SSA (83.8), Asia Dvlpg (9.6),Lat Am (29.7), Carib(4.7), Nr East (2.5)
Oil of soybean and oil of groundnut ⁵	SSA (95.0), Asia Dvlpg (0.0),Lat Am (3.0), Carib(0.0), Nr East (0.8)
Sugar	SSA (85.2), Asia Dvlpg (0.2),Lat Am (2.9), Carib (93.8), Nr East (0.8)
Cocoa	SSA (73.8), Asia Dvlpg (11.2),Lat Am (13.5), Carib(39.3), Nr East (9.9)
Coffee	SSA (55.0), Asia Dvlpg (37.0),Lat Am (46.0), Carib(3.7), Nr East (17.0)
Oranges and pineapples ⁶	SSA (68.4), Asia Dvlpg (41.8),Lat Am (38.1), Carib(17.0), Nr East (16.8)

JAPAN

Product groups with significant tariff escalation	Shares of developing regions' exports to the market
Pig meat and poultry meat	SSA (0.0), Asia Dvlpg (60.1),Lat Am (14.9), Carib (0.0), Nr East (0.0)
Oil of soybean	SSA (0.0), Asia Dvlpg (0.9),Lat Am (0.0), Carib(0.6), Nr East (0.0)
Sugar	SSA (0.0), Asia Dvlpg (11.3),Lat Am (0.0), Carib(0.0), Nr East (0.0)
Cocoa	SSA (0.5), Asia Dvlpg (7.8),Lat Am (2.8), Carib(9.1), Nr East (0.1)
Coffee	SSA (5.0), Asia Dvlpg (14.1),Lat Am (8.1), Carib(87.9), Nr East (1.4)
Hides & skins	SSA (1.4), Asia Dvlpg (0.9),Lat Am (0.3), Carib(0.0), Nr East (5.9)

CANADA

Product groups with significant tariff escalation	Shares of developing regions' exports to the market
Beef and poultry meat	SSA (0.0), Asia Dvlpg (0.0),Lat Am (0.1), Carib(2.9), Nr East (0.0)
Oil of soybean	SSA (0.0), Asia Dvlpg (0.0),Lat Am (0.0), Carib(0.0), Nr East (0.0)
Oil of groundnut	SSA (0.0), Asia Dvlpg (0.0),Lat Am (0.0), Carib(0.0), Nr East (0.0)
Sugar	SSA (0.0), Asia Dvlpg (0.1),Lat Am (3.2), Carib(0.0), Nr East (0.0)
Cocoa	SSA (0.0), Asia Dvlpg (1.3),Lat Am (3.6), Carib(0.0), Nr East (0.1)

Note :

The abbreviations stand for the following:

SSA - Sub-Saharan Africa, Asia Dvlpg - Asia Developing, Lat Am - Latin America,

Carib- Caribbean, Nr East - Near East including North Africa

Tariffs are MFN tariffs only

¹Indicates share of developing regions exports to the market as a percentage of exports to the world.

² Includes only poultry meat for Carib

³ SSA & Lat Am including only pineapples

⁴ Excluding poultry meat for Carib

⁵ Nr East includes soybean oil only

⁶ Lat Am includes only pineapples

Source : WITS, FAOSTAT

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