Organisation: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), AGST
Prepared by Anne Plotto.
Edited by François Mazaud, Alexandra Röttger, Katja Steffel, Larissa D'Aquilio (HTML transfer)

1 Introduction
1.1 Economic and Social Impact of Ginger
1.2 World trade;
   1.2.1 Main consumption areas
   1.2.2 Trends in international prices
1.3 Primary Product
1.4 Secondary and derived products
1.5 Requirements for export and quality assurance
   1.5.1 Cleanliness specifications for spices
   1.5.2 Essential oil specifications
   1.5.3 Requirements for organic spices and products

1. Introduction

Ginger is the underground stem (rhizome) of a perennial herb, which is used as a spice and as a preserve. The knobby rhizome is dug up when the 1 meter tall leaves and stems of the plant wither, which occurs between 6 and 12 months after planting. It is then prepared for market by either scalding, to produce black ginger, or by scraping and washing to produce white ginger. It is sold in the fresh condition or, more frequently, in a peeled and split dried form. Ginger is utilized widely as a spice, for pickles, candies and as a medicinal herb. It can be produced in many countries but it does best in moist, tropical conditions.

1.1 Economic and Social Impact of Ginger

In the 1980s, ginger world production was estimated at 100,000 t, but because of the several forms in which it is traded and the fact that a high proportion is consumed in the countries where it is grown or is used to provide seeds for the next crop, it is difficult to get accurate figures²¹. Other sources projected production to grow from 300,000 t in 1980, to 500,000 t in 1990, to 600,000tin 1998 ³⁸ . India, China, Indonesia, Nigeria, the Philippines and Thailand are currently the main producers. India alone produced 232,510 t in 1996-97 on 70,910 hectares, and exported 28,321 t in 1997-9828. However, Indian exports decreased to 6,580 t in 2000-2001, and 8,000 t in 2001-20021. The International Trade Centre ²³ data show that China and Thailand were the major exporting countries in 1998-2000. China seems to be the preferred provider for Korea, while Pakistan buys most of its ginger from India. Indonesia also provides ginger to Malaysia, and Hong Kong before it became part the People's Republic of China. Brazil is the third exporter of dried ginger. The three leading exporting countries in 2000 were China, Thailand, and Brazil. ²³

World production of ginger oil, mainly from India and China, was estimated at 30t in 1998³⁸ , and 100-200 t in 2000⁴², with the major importing countries being United States, Europe and Japan. Oleoresin production in the 1980s was estimated at 150 t.³⁸ Most of the oleoresin is produced by the consuming countries, European Union and the United States. In addition, India produces and exports approximately 50 to 100 t annually.⁴²

Globally, ginger represents 15-16% of the tonnage of spices imported from 1996 to 2000 (Table 1). In the US, ginger has risen to be among the highest 12 spices consumed, replacing fennel seeds. ¹²

Table 1. Global import of ginger from 1999 to 2000 in volume (metric tons)

Source: ITC, 2002

1.2 World trade

1.2.1 Main consumption areas

It is difficult to compare import data because they usually do not distinguish fresh from dried ginger. For instance, Japan is the number one importer of ginger, with 104,379 t in 2000, and no re-export.²³ But Japanese traditionally consume preserve ginger made from a mild fresh rhizome.²¹ Therefore, the Japanese import data may be inflated by the weight of fresh ginger, in addition to the weight of dried ginger, and thus may not be comparable to other nations. Other major importing countries are: US (19,035 t), UK (10,337 t), Saudi Arabia (8,248 t), Singapore (import 7,566 t, re-export 2,989 t), Malaysia (import 7,652 t, re-export 1,334 t), Korea (6,805 t), the Netherlands (import 6,981 t, re-export 2,858 t), Canada (4,680 t), Germany, and France (Table 2). Both the Netherlands and Singapore serve as importing countries and re-export to neighboring countries (Netherlands), and other world countries (Singapore).

Table 2: Quantities (metric tons) of ginger imports by country ²³

Source: ITC, 2002

China and Thailand are the major ginger sources for most importing countries (Table 3). Brazil and Nigeria provide ginger to the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany and the Netherlands. India's exports dropped from 28,268 t in 1997-98 to 6,500 t in 2000-01.¹ Within the last decade China has become a major competitor overtaking some traditional exporting countries. In 1998, for the U.S. alone, ginger imports from China were 2,361 t, which rose to 12,459 t in 2002.³⁹ Saudi Arabia imported most of its ginger from Indonesia in 1996-1999, but the same amount was imported from China in 2000.²³

Table 3. Major ginger imports (metric tons) in 2000 by country of origin)²³

Source: ITC, 2002

Most of the International Trade Center (ITC) data report ginger imports overall, without specifying the form, that is fresh, dried, or ground. ITC however does specify "except preserved". On the other hand, the American Spice Trade Association reports import data for "dried plant products used primarily for culinary purposes", data gathered from its members.¹² Therefore, for the United States alone, the difference accounted for 5,000 t of fresh product in 2000 (Table 4).

Table 4: Ginger imports in the US (metric tons; US $1000)

^a: Department of Commerce, U.S. Census Bureau, Foreign Trade Statistics (United States Department of Agriculture, Foreign Agricultural Service, 2003).
^b: American Spice Trade Association. Spice statistics 2000. Data not available for 2001 and 2002.

1.2.2 Trends in international prices

Unit prices of ginger slightly decreased in the 4-years 1996-2000, from 1.35 to 0.81 $ per kilogram²³, while other crops such as vanilla, clove and nutmeg have seen their prices inflated by a speculative market.

Table 5: World import value (in US $1,000s) of ginger from 1996 to 2000

Source: ITC 2002

Comparison of value by country may be confounded since the product type imported is not specified. One can assume that the bulk of the product is dried whole rhizomes, but as soon as some processing occurs such as peeling, slicing or grinding, differential value is added, rendering the price per unit volume not comparable.

Table 6: Value (US $1,000s) of ginger imports by country

Source: ITC, 2002

1.3 Primary Product

Most fresh ginger is consumed locally in Asia. However, due to rising Asian immigrant populations, there has been an increasing demand for fresh ginger in Western Europe and Northern America.⁴² The United States brings in fresh ginger produced in Hawaii.¹³ Other sources of fresh ginger to the United States are South and Central American countries: Brazil, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua.¹³

Dried ginger

The country of production determines the types of ginger available to spice importers: Indian (Cochin and Calicut), Chinese, African (Nigeria and Sierra Leone), Jamaican, and Australian²¹. Indian (Cochin) and Jamaican gingers have a reputation of a high quality, with a light color and delicate flavor.38,42 Cochin ginger has a light yellow color while Calicut is more reddish-brown; both have a delicate odor and flavor, with some lemon-like aroma13,21; Indian ginger is mostly exported washed and dried, unpeeled or roughly peeled.

African ginger is darker in color and higher in monoterpene content, giving a more pungent aroma with camphoraceous notes; it has a high oil content and level of pungency, therefore it is usually preferred for the production of oils and oleoresins.^38,42

Chinese dried ginger is exported as whole peeled with two grades, and sliced unpeeled. It is whiter than the Indian ginger, tends to be more fibrous and more bitter.¹³

Varieties

Yield and oil characteristic and content vary with cultivar and environmental factors. There are many local varieties grown over the world. More than 400 accessions of ginger are maintained at the Indian Institute for Spice Research in Calicut, Kerala, India, and about 45 are at the research Institute for Spices and Medicinal Crops in Bogor, Indonesia.³⁸

The following Indian cultivars are results of selection by the Indian Institute for Spice Research with high yield and high oil content:

Table 7: Characteristics of Improved Cultivars from the Indian Institute for Spice Research ^1,2,10,32

^a Rejatha and Mahima are germplasm selections of the Indian Institute of Spice Research, released in 2001. Percent oleoresins not given.
^b IISR-Varada is a germplasm selection of the Indian Institute of Spice Research, released in 1996
¹ http://www.indianspices.com/html/s1926pac.htm
² http://www.iisr.org/varieties/

1.4 Secondary and derived products

Candies and preserves

Chinese ginger has been the standard for ginger preserved in syrup.³⁸ Australia has also developed a ginger industry, and it exports mostly candied rhizomes¹³, reputed to have "superior and consistent quality".⁴²

Essential oil and oleoresins

Essential oil is obtained by steam distillation, while oleoresins are obtained by solvent extraction. Therefore, essential oils contain the volatile fraction of the spice, while the oleoresins contain the volatile fraction, as well as components that are soluble in the solvent used in the extraction process.

Oils and oleoresins are preferred to dried spices as flavoring by the food industry, because they are more stable, cleaner, free from contaminations, and can be standardized by blending oils from different sources ³².

Gingerols are responsible for the ginger pungency, with (6)-gingerol being the most abundant^16,19; however gingerols are decomposed by heat during the distillation process, and thus are found at higher concentrations in the oleoresin extractives.⁴² Other compounds with a pungent characteristic are zingerone and shogaols¹⁹, both degradation products of gingerol.¹⁶ Oleoresin production used to be performed in the importing country, but recently, more producing countries see the value-added of making their own extractives.¹³ Essential oils are used in the manufacture of soft drinks, ginger beer, and in food preparation.

Ginger paste

With increasing ginger production in Hawaii, canned ginger paste was made experimentally as a value-added product.¹⁴ The instability of flavor components and color of this experimental paste resulted in a product that could not be commercialized beyond 8 weeks. In India, a ginger paste is traditionally made with 50% sliced and macerated ginger, 35% garlic, and 15% salt.⁴²

Nutraceuticals

In India, ginger enters in the preparation of many aryuvedic formulations, "aryuveda" being the traditional Indian medical discipline.²⁸ In the United States and Europe, ginger preparations are sold as nutraceuticals or over-the-counter remedies against nausea, motion sickness, and migraine²⁶. It is listed in the German Commission E Monographs as an approved phytomedicine against dyspepsia and to prevent motion sickness.

1.5 Requirements for export and quality assurance

1.5.1 Cleanliness specifications for spices

In 1969, the U.S.-Food and Drug Administration has come to an agreement with spice importers in the United States that the industry would control spice sampling and analysis prior to entering the food consumer market. Since then, the American Spice Trade Association (ASTA) has established standards for Cleanliness Specifications and assured through its approved laboratories that no spices enter the food market if not meeting the criteria. Contaminated or adulterated spices would need proper sanitation and reconditioning, or would be returned to the exporting country. The standards were changed over the years to also reach FDA requirements for foods. The ASTA Cleanliness Specification have become a standard for most exporting countries, who have built their facilities to meet those requirements. Importing countries that do not have specified standards may use ASTA's specifications.

Table 8: ASTA Cleanliness Specifications for Ginger¹¹

¹ extraneous matter includes but is not restricted to: stones, dirt, wire, string, stems, sticks, non toxic foreign seeds, excreta, manure, and animal contamination.
ASTA sampling guidelines are as follows: precisely weighed samples are passed through a sieve (U.S. Standard No 8, or standard pepper sieve No 9) with a white paper underneath to observe foreign matter, insects and mammalian excreta. Rhizomes are examined for mold and defiling insects. Foreign matter is reported by count for insects or by weight ^1.

EU-member countries such as the U.K., Germany and the Netherlands have their own specifications. The European Spice Association (ESA) has a set of "quality minima for herbs and spices", but has yet to finalize the cleanliness specification standards for spices and spice products.

Table 9: European Spice Association (ESA) Minimum Quality Standards for Ginger

^a:Indian Standards Institute
^b:European Spice Association
Extraneous matter and foreign matter should not exceed 1% and 2%, respectively. Should be free from live and/or dead insects, insect fragments and rodent contamination visible to the naked eye (corrected if necessary for abnormal vision).

Microbiology: Salmonella must be absent in (at least) 25 g of material. Yeast and mold: 10⁵/g (target), absolute maximum: 10⁶/g. E.Coli: 10²/g (target), absolute maximum: 10³/g.

The European Union has fixed limits for aflatoxin, which should not exceed 10 ppb (total aflatoxins), and 5 ppb for aflatoxin B1. Individual European Union member countries have their own limits varying from 1 to 20 ppb. In the United States, it should not exceed 20 ppb².

1.5.2 Essential oil specifications

The Food Chemical Codex standards for ginger oil are the following:

Table 10: Food Chemical Codex Standards for Ginger Oil

Oleoresins standards as defined by the U.S. Essential Oil Association are as follows:

Table 11: Oleoresins standards as defined by the U.S. Essential Oil Association

Ginger oil and oleoresins may be standardized to meet specific product requirements. However, when this procedure is done, the product must be labeled WONF (With Other Natural Flavors), with the added natural flavor identified³.

1.5.3 Requirements for organic spices and products

To be sold as "organic", a product must be certified by an accredited certification body. There are slight differences in standards between countries. IFOAM, the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movement, has established organic production, processing and trading standards, and tried to harmonize certification systems worldwide.³⁶ National and regional governments are also trying to work under a compatible minimum set of standards. The European Union (EU) has established basic regulations for organic products in 1991 (Council Regulation 2092/91), which apply to all products marketed as "organic", "biologic", "ecologic", "biodynamic", or similar terms. Imports may be accepted through procedures conforming to the exporting country's regulations, or by review of the certification documents, which accompany each shipment.

The EU regulation sets a minimum standard, and member states or private certification bodies may certify to standards that meet or exceed EU regulation 2092/91. In the United States, the Organic Food Production Act (OFPA) was passed into law in 1990, and since October 2002 has made organic production and processing uniformly regulated across all of the United States. The Agricultural Marketing Service (AMS) branch of the U.S. Department of Agriculture is administering the National Organic Program ⁴.

To be labeled "organic", a product must be grown following organic agricultural practices. Post harvest handling and processing must be done in certified facilities, whether on the farm or in food packing or processing facilities. Only mechanical, thermal or biological methods can be used in organic processing. The use of genetically modified organisms (GMO) (plants, animals or bacteria) and products of GMO are prohibited in organic production. Likewise, ionizing radiation and sewage sludge are prohibited from organic agricultural practices. Labels of organic products must identify the certification body.

In general, the Japanese organic standards (Japan Agricultural Standards, JAS) follow the U.S. NOP standards. However, JAS does not allow organic labeling on products that contain less than 95% organic ingredients (the EU and NOP allow labeling "made with organic ingredients" for products that contain between 70% and 95% organic ingredients).

In addition to standards pertaining to the production of organic products, IFOAM basic standards include environmental and social justice requirements. For example, IFOAM basic standards⁶ include "2.1.1: operators shall take measures to maintain and improve landscape and enhance biodiversity quality"; "8.1: operators shall have a policy on social justice"; "8.5: operators shall provide their employees and contractors equal opportunity and treatment, and shall not act in a discriminatory way"; and "8.6: children employed by organic operators shall be provided with educational opportunities".

IFOAM, EU and U.S. organic standards include lists that allow the use of specific synthetic, non-agricultural or non-organic agricultural substances. If a substance does not appear on those lists, it must not be used on an organic product, in the process or as an ingredient. Those lists differ slightly, and operators producing for export markets to Europe, United States and Japan should consult and compare those lists carefully to assure compliance in each country ^{5   6}.

To comply with organic standards and practices, the operator must document all farming and post-harvest activities. The following records must be maintained: farm field map, field history, activity register, input records including purchases, output records including sales, harvest records, storage records, pest control records, movement records, equipment cleaning and labeling. All such documentation must meet specific standards that are enumerated in directives issued by the certification agencies.

In the processing plant, the operator must present an "organic handling plan" that will show how contamination from prohibited materials and commingling with non-organic products will be prevented. This includes a detailed description of the process, receiving and storage of ingredients and finished products, cleaning and sanitation of the processing equipment, facilities pest management, and a documentary "paper trail" that must permanently record all of the above.

For the spice and oleoresins production, ionizing radiation and the use of volatile synthetic solvents are prohibited for use in the processing of organic products.

¹Percent calculation formula are given in the ASTA Cleanliness Specifications manual, method 14.1, page13-17¹¹

²Detailed specifications for quality standards, pesticide residues and aflatoxin levels for some individual European countries may be found at: http://www.indianspices.com/html/s1490qua.htm

³For further details, see CFR 21, Part 101.22: http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/~lrd/CF101-22.html

⁴see final rules in the Federal Register (7 CFR Part 205, 2000).

⁵For reference, the IFOAM lists are contained in Appendices 1, 2, 3, and 4 of the IFOAM basic standards6. The USDA National List for allowed non organic (non agricultural and agricultural) ingredients is under § 205.605 and § 205.606 of the Federal Register, Vol. 65, No 246, and can be found at: http://www.ams.usda.gov/nop/NationalList/FinalRule.html

⁶EU lists for processing are under Annex VI-A, VI-B, and VI-C. EC 2092/91 regulation and amendments may be found by searching Euro-lex, at: http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/en/search/search_lif.html, using the year descriptor "1991" and document number "2092".