Smallholders in developing countries face institutional and economic constraints in obtaining the status of certified organic producers. Despite the outstanding growth of organic markets over the last decade, certification costs and standards from the developed world prevent many smallholders in developing countries from entering these markets. Farmers seeking to sell organic products usually have to hire an organic certification agency to inspect farms annually and confirm that they adhere to the standards established by trading partners.

The case studies selected were: (i) on organic fragrant rice for export, 2 case studies from Thailand in Chapter 1 and one case from India in Chapter 2, all complying with Internal Control System (ICS); and (ii) on organic fruits and vegetables for local markets (Ecovida Network) in Brazil using Participatory Guarantee System (PGS) in Chapter 3; and on organic fruits and vegetables for export and/or domestic markets in Hungary and Czech Republic, in Chapters 4 and 5 respectively, to illustrate compliance with third party certification systems as individuals. An analytical synthesis report based on the case studies has been published as AGSF Occasional Paper 16 “Organic Certification schemes: managerial skills and associated costs”.