Measures related to Systemic Shift 1: Strengthening land governance
Integrated land-use planning
Integrated land-use planning builds upon the notion of “land-sharing”, which promotes the integration of conservation and agricultural production objectives on the same land. It requires coordination across different actors governing or using the land to balance land-use priorities, including for pastoral or crop production and forestry. In doing so, it has the potential to minimize conflicts and maximize benefits for affected stakeholders as well as for society, the economy and the environment at large. Integrated land-use planning solutions are typically implemented at the national, subnational or local levels and, while typically government driven, they require participatory input from affected stakeholders. In many cases, the strengthening of institutional capacities is a prerequisite for effective integrated land-use planning. Ultimately, the key to effective integrated land-use planning lies in cross-sectoral coordination and enhanced collaboration among all relevant actors.
| Guidance | · FAO methodology: Participatory Informed Landscape Approach (PILA) · |
| Reports | · UN-REDD info brief: Land-Use Planning and Integrated Approaches to Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation · UN-REDD report: Legal analysis of cross-cutting issues for REDD+ implementation -Lessons learned from Mexico, Viet Nam and Zambia |
| Platforms | · Tropical Forest Alliance knowledge hub: Jurisdictional Approaches Resource Hub |
| Initiatives/ projects | · Collaborative Partnership on Forests Conference: Working across sectors to halt deforestation and increase forest area · CGIAR project: Enhancing partnerships and cross-sectoral collaboration for an effective, efficient, and equitable low emission food system in Mekong Delta, Vietnam |
| Examples of landscape/ jurisdictional approaches | · Production, Protection & Inclusion Compacts · Produce, Conserve, Include (PCI) Mato Grosso, Brazil · Tapanuli Selatan Landscape Initiative, Indonesia · Tocache Jurisdictional Initiative, Peru |
| Academic publications | · Folhes, R., de Aguiar, A., Stoll, E., Dalla-Nora, E., Araújo, R., Coelho, A., & do Canto, O. 2015. Multi-scale participatory scenario methods and territorial planning in the Brazilian Amazon. FUTURES, 73, 86–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.futures.2015.08.005 · Lima, M., Visseren-Hamakers, I., Braña-Varela, J. & Gupta, A. 2017. A reality check on the landscape approach to REDD plus : Lessons from Latin America. FOREST POLICY AND ECONOMICS, 78: 10–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2016.12.013 · FPinillos, D., Poccard-Chapuis, R., Bianchi, F., Corbeels, M., Timler, C., Tittonell, P., Ballester, M., & Schulte, R. 2021. Landholders’ perceptions on legal reserves and agricultural intensification: Diversity and implications for forest conservation in the eastern Brazilian Amazon. FOREST POLICY AND ECONOMICS, 129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2021.102504 · van der Haar, S., Gallagher, E., Schoneveld, G., Slingerland, M., & Leeuwis, C. 2023. Climate-smart cocoa in forest landscapes: Lessons from institutional innovations in Ghana. LAND USE POLICY, 132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2023.106819 |
| Case studies/ examples | Case study: From farmers to public policy. “Planificacion predial” (land planning): a tool to organize the territory and protect the Amazon rainforest in Guaviare, Colombia Since the signing of the peace agreements in Colombia with the FARC-EP in 2016, the department of Guaviare has experienced an acceleration of deforestation linked mainly to land speculation and the expansion of cattle breeding and illicit crops. To address this rapid rise in deforestation rates – in 2020, deforestation in Guaviare made up 21% of Colombia’s total deforestation - the Government of Guaviare initiated the signing of forest conservation agreements with farmers and the development of participatory land-use planning approaches, such as Caminemos Territorios Sostenibles or Terramaz. Under these approaches, farmers are committing themselves to conserve certain areas of forest and develop sustainable intensification systems or forest restoration programs on already deforested land. In addition, farmers can receive financial and/or technical support to implement their strategies. In November 2021, the Government of Guaviare additionally launched a collaborative forum to better coordinate land use planning with relevant stakeholders in the Department. This followed a High Court ruling ordering the Government to create concrete mechanisms to curb deforestation, address climate change, and protect future generations. As an intermediary success of these different land use planning approaches, 400 family farms have adopted sustainable production practices and committed themselves to forest conservation. In addition, the integrated land use approaches in Guaviare have led to better cohesion among stakeholders and strengthened participatory input, ensuring that land use decisions are informed and guided by a collective vision developed through an inclusive consultation process. |
| Reports | · FAO issue paper: Decentralized Development in Agriculture. An Overview. · International Initiative for Impact Evaluation systematic review: Decentralized forest management for reducing deforestation and poverty in low- and middle-income countries · World Bank report: Forest law and sustainable development : addressing contemporary challenges through legal reform · UN-REDD report: Legal analysis of cross-cutting issues for REDD+ implementation -Lessons learned from Mexico, Viet Nam and Zambia |
| Academic publications | · Blackman, A., Corral, L., Lima, E., & Asner, G. 2017. Titling indigenous communities protects forests in the Peruvian Amazon. PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, 114(16), 4123–4128. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1603290114 · Nansikombi, H., Fischer, R., Kabwe, G., & Günter, S. 2020. Exploring patterns of forest governance quality: Insights from forest frontier communities in Zambia’s Miombo ecoregion. LAND USE POLICY, 99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2020.104866 · Rakotomahazo, C., Ranivoarivelo, N., Razanoelisoa, J., Todinanahary, G., Ranaivoson, E., Remanevy, M., Ravaoarinorotsihoarana, L., & Lavitra, T. 2023. Exploring the policy and institutional context of a Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) scheme for mangroves in southwestern Madagascar. MARINE POLICY, 148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2022.105450 · Rodriguez-Ward, D., Larson, A., & Ruesta, H. 2018. Top-down, Bottom-up and Sideways: The Multilayered Complexities of Multi-level Actors Shaping Forest Governance and REDD plus Arrangements in Madre de Dios, Peru. ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT, 62(1), 98–116. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-017-0982-5 |
Promoting land-sparing strategies
Unlike “land-sharing” strategies, “land-sparing” approaches keep agricultural production and forests separate and demarcate certain areas for conservation. The land-sparing approach promotes the intensification of agriculture while allowing blocks of land to be spared for conservation and tends to have a positive impact on biodiversity. Typically, national and subnational governments are the main implementing actors of land-sparing approaches given the required authority to demarcate land, while forest-dependent communities, in particular Indigenous Peoples, are often involved in the management of conservation areas.
| Guidance | · IUCN guidelines: Guidelines for Applying Protected Area Management Categories |
| Initiatives/ projects | · International Climate Initiative project: Protected area management for biodiversity conservation and climate change mitigation · WWF initiative: Earth for Life Initiative · GEF-funded initiative: GEF-8 Amazon, Congo, and Critical Forest Biomes Integrated Program · GEF-funded initiative: GEF-8 Indo-Malaya Critical Forest Biome Integrated Program |
| Academic publications | · Hill, R., Miller, C., Newell, B., Dunlop, M., & Gordon, I. 2015. Why biodiversity declines as protected areas increase: The effect of the power of governance regimes on sustainable landscapes. SUSTAINABILITY SCIENCE, 10(2), 357–369. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-015-0288-6 · Kim, D. & Anand, A. 2021. Effectiveness of Protected Areas in the Pan-Tropics and International Aid for Conservation. GEOMATICS, 1(3): 335–346. https://doi.org/10.3390/geomatics1030019 · Powlen, K., Gavin, M. & Jones, K. 2021. Management effectiveness positively influences forest conservation outcomes in protected areas. BIOLOGICAL CONSERVATION, 260. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2021.109192 · Santika, T., Meijaard, E., & Wilson, K. 2015. Designing multifunctional landscapes for forest conservation. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LETTERS, 10(11). https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/10/11/114012 · Shah, P., Baylis, K., Busch, J., & Engelmann, J. 2021. What determines the effectiveness of national protected area networks? ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LETTERS, 16(7). https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ac05ed |
| Initiatives/ projects | · Fondation Prince Albert II de Monaco initiative: Forests and Communities Initiative |
| Case studies/ examples | · World Bank feature story: Community engagement and conservation agreements in the heart of the Colombian Amazon · World Bank report: Ghana - Green Growth PASA : CREMA Financial Sustainability - Analysis Report |
| Academic publications | · Mehring, M., Seeberg-Elverfeldt, C., Koch, S., Barkmann, J., Schwarze, S., & Stoll-Kleemann, S. 2011. Local institutions: Regulation and valuation of forest use-Evidence from Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. LAND USE POLICY, 28(4), 736–747. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2011.01.001 · Sauquet, A., Marchand, S., & Féres, J. 2014. Protected areas, local governments, and strategic interactions: The case of the ICMS-Ecologico in the Brazilian state of Parana. ECOLOGICAL ECONOMICS, 107, 249–258. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2014.09.008 · West, T., & Fearnside, P. 2021. Brazil’s conservation reform and the reduction of deforestation in Amazonia. LAND USE POLICY, 100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2020.105072 |
| Guidance | · High Conservation Values Network tool: High Conservation Values (HCV) Approach · High Carbon Stock Approach tool: High Carbon Stock (HCS) Approach |
| Platforms | · Wildlife Conservation Society tool: Forest Landscape Integrity Index |
| E-learning modules | · Proforest e-learning course: Introduction to the HCV and HCS Approaches · Proforest e-learning course: Protecting HCVs in Landscapes |
| Academic publications | · Areendran, G., Sahana, M., Raj, K., Kumar, R., Sivadas, A., Kumar, A., Deb, S., & Gupta, V. D. 2020. A systematic review on high conservation value assessment (HCVs): Challenges and framework for future research on conservation strategy. Science of The Total Environment, 709, 135425. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.135425 · Deere, N. J., Guillera‐Arroita, G., Baking, E. L., Bernard, H., Pfeifer, M., Reynolds, G., Wearn, O. R., Davies, Z. G., & Struebig, M. J. 2018. High Carbon Stock forests provide co‐benefits for tropical biodiversity. Journal of Applied Ecology, 55(2), 997–1008. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.13023 · Prieto-Torres, D., Díaz, S., Cordier, J., Torres, R., Caron, M., & Nori, J. 2022. Analyzing individual drivers of global changes promotes inaccurate long-term policies in deforestation hotspots: The case of Gran Chaco. BIOLOGICAL CONSERVATION, 269. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2022.109536 · Ramos, R., Scarabello, M., Soterroni, A., Andrade, P., Simoes, R., Ruivo, H., Kraxner, F., & Ramos, F. 2023. Current policies are insufficient to protect or restore Brazil’s cost-effective conservation priority zones. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LETTERS, 18(6). https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/acd209 |
Strengthening compliance with national legislation and international instruments
In most countries, provisions defining land zoning, access, usage, management and decision-making are defined in national legislation. In addition, many countries have signed and ratified international legal instruments, including conventions related to environmental governance, such as the United Nations (UN) Framework Convention on Climate Change, UN Convention on Biological Diversity, UN Convention to Combat Desertification and Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), among others. Translating these international obligations into national laws often remains a challenge, however. To strengthen implementation and compliance, governments have an important role to play to maximize the effectiveness and efficiency of laws. These include adopting regulatory instruments to enforce general laws and make legal texts accessible to a wide range of stakeholders by simplifying or translating them into local languages or dialects. Strengthening the capacities of law enforcement officers at national and local levels, issuing and implementing effective fines and sanctions, and addressing corruption, among others, are further measures governments can take to strengthen legal compliance.
| Reports | · FAO report: Best practices for improving law compliance in the forestry sector |
| Platforms | · FAO database: FAOLEX |
| Academic publications | · Schmidt, C. A., & McDermott, C. L. 2014. Deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon: Local Explanations for Forestry Law Compliance. Social & Legal Studies, 24(1), 3-24. https://doi.org/10.1177/0964663914552213 (Original work published 2015) |
| Academic publications | · Gatti, L., Cunha, C., Marani, L., Cassol, H., Messias, C., Arai, E., Denning, A., Soler, L., Almeida, C., Setzer, A., Domingues, L., Basso, L., Miller, J., Gloor, M., Correia, C., Tejada, G., Neves, R., Rajao, R., Nunes, F., … Machado, G. 2023. Increased Amazon carbon emissions mainly from decline in law enforcement. NATURE, 621(7978), 318-+. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-06390-0 · Giudice, R., & Börner, J. 2024. Cost-effectiveness and income effects of alternative forest conservation policy mixes for the Peruvian Amazon. LAND USE POLICY, 143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2024.107197 · Nunes, F., Soares, B., Oliveira, A., Veloso, L., Schmitt, J., van der Hoff, R., Assis, D., Costa, R., Boerner, J., Ribeiro, S., Rajao, R., de Oliveira, U., & Costa, M. 2024. Lessons from the historical dynamics of environmental law enforcement in the Brazilian Amazon. SCIENTIFIC REPORTS, 14(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-52180-7 |
| Reports | · Interpol report: Assessment of Law Enforcement Capacity Needs to Tackle Forest Crime · UNODC report: Global Analysis on Crimes that Affect the Environment – Part 2a Forest Crime · WWF, Interpol and Client Earth Report: Recommendations for the Improvement of Law Enforcement in Relation to Forestry Crime |
| Initiatives/ projects | · Interpol programme: Law Enforcement Assistance Programme to reduce tropical deforestation (LEAP) · EU Forest Law Enforcement, Governance and Trade (FLEGT) Action Plan |
| Platforms | · FAO Sustainable Forest Management (SFM) Toolbox: Forest Law Enforcement |
| Academic publications | · Gaveau, D., Linkie, M., Suyadi, Levang, P., & Leader-Williams, N. 2009. Three decades of deforestation in southwest Sumatra: Effects of coffee prices, law enforcement and rural poverty. BIOLOGICAL CONSERVATION, 142(3), 597–605. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2008.11.024 · Nunes, F., Soares, B., Oliveira, A., Veloso, L., Schmitt, J., van der Hoff, R., Assis, D., Costa, R., Boerner, J., Ribeiro, S., Rajao, R., de Oliveira, U., & Costa, M. 2024. Lessons from the historical dynamics of environmental law enforcement in the Brazilian Amazon. SCIENTIFIC REPORTS, 14(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-52180-7 · Tacconi, L., Rodrigues, R., & Maryudi, A. 2019. Law enforcement and deforestation: Lessons for Indonesia from Brazil. FOREST POLICY AND ECONOMICS, 108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2019.05.029 |
| Guidance | · Transparency International guidance document for civil society organisations: Independent REDD+ Governance Monitoring |
| Reports | · UNODC report: Rooting out Corruption: An Introduction to Addressing the Corruption Fuelling Forest Loss |
| Initiatives/ projects | · The Basel Institute initiative: Green Corruption Initiative · WWF initiative: EU Forest Crime Initiative |
| Case studies/ examples | · National action plan: Brazil’s Action Plan for the Prevention and Control of Deforestation in the Legal Amazon (PPCDAm) · UNODC meeting summary: Countering forest loss in Africa through anti-corruption mechanisms |
| Academic publications | · Barbier, E., & Tesfaw, A. 2015. Explaining forest transitions: The role of governance. ECOLOGICAL ECONOMICS, 119, 252–261. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2015.09.010 · Moreira-Dantas, I., & Söder, M. 2022. Global deforestation revisited: The role of weak institutions. LAND USE POLICY, 122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2022.106383 |
| Guidance | · CBD guidance: NBSAP Capacity Building Modules |
| Reports | · CITES report: Status of Legislative Progress for Implementing CITES |
| Platforms | · CBD tool: Online Reporting Tool of NBSAPs and national biodiversity targets · Learning for Nature platform: NBSAP Forum · OECD platform: Ensuring environmental compliance |
| Case studies | · Blog post: National Implementation and Compliance with International Environmental Accords |
| Academic publications | · Chandra, A., & Idrisova, A. 2011. Convention on Biological Diversity: A review of national challenges and opportunities for implementation. Biodiversity and Conservation, 20(14), 3295–3316. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-011-0141-x · Jacobson, H. K., & Weiss, E. B. 1995. Strengthening Compliance with International Environmental Accords: Preliminary Observations from a Collaborative Project. Global Governance, 1(2), 119–148. · Koh, N. S., Ituarte-Lima, C., & Hahn, T. 2022. Mind the Compliance Gap: How Insights from International Human Rights Mechanisms Can Help to Implement the Convention on Biological Diversity. Transnational Environmental Law, 11(1), 39–67. https://doi.org/10.1017/S2047102521000169 · Wyatt, T. 2021. Is CITES Protecting Wildlife?: Assessing Implementation and Compliance (1st ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003007838 |
Enhancing tenure security
Enhancing tenure security holds the potential not only to address broader governance factors contributing to deforestation but also to strengthen the livelihoods of forest-dependent communities, in particular Indigenous Peoples, and to protect them from land grabs. To do so, governments can recognize and protect customary rights, respect the principle of FPIC of Indigenous Peoples, involve local communities in decision-making, and make land titling procedures affordable and accessible. This can help enhance livelihoods, protect forests and create conditions for sustainable rural development.
| Guidance | · FAO report: Legal guide on land consolidation · FAO report: Due diligence, tenure and agricultural investment |
| Reports | · FAO report: Collective tenure rights and climate action in sub-Saharan Africa |
| Academic publications | · Blackman, A., Corral, L., Lima, E., & Asner, G. 2017. Titling indigenous communities protects forests in the Peruvian Amazon. PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, 114(16), 4123–4128. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1603290114 · Ceddia, M., & Zepharovich, E. 2017. Jevons paradox and the loss of natural habitat in the Argentinean Chaco: The impact of the indigenous communities’ land titling and the Forest Law in the province of Salta. LAND USE POLICY, 69, 608–617. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2017.09.044 · Kubitza, C., Krishna, V.V., Urban, K., Alamsyah, Z. & Qaim, M. 2018. Land Property Rights, Agricultural Intensification, and Deforestation in Indonesia. Ecological Economics, 147: 312–321. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2018.01.021 · Reydon, B., Fernandes, V., & Telles, T. 2020. Land governance as a precondition for decreasing deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon. LAND USE POLICY, 94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2019.104313 |
| Guidance | · United Nations General Assembly Resolution: United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples · FAO tool: FPIC toolkit · UN-REDD and FCPF guidance: Guidelines on Stakeholder Engagement in REDD+ Readiness · IFAD guidance: Good practices in participatory mapping · FAO & IFAD guideline: GeoTech4Tenure – Technical guide on combining geospatial technology and participatory methods for securing tenure rights. |
| Reports | · UN-REDD report: Legal analysis of cross-cutting issues for REDD+ implementation - Lessons learned from Mexico, Viet Nam and Zambia · FAO report: Assessing inclusive and participatory mapping for recognizing customary tenure systems in Myanmar |
| E-learning modules | · FAO e-learning course: Free, Prior and Informed Consent (FPIC) - An indigenous peoples’ right and a good practice for local communities |
| Initiatives/ projects | · FAO initiative: GeoTech4Tenure |
| Case studies/ examples | · International Land Coalition case study: Participatory mapping of customary forest use to influence spatial planning |
| Academic publications | · Bourgoin, J., Castella, J., Hett, C., Lestrelin, G., & Heinimann, A. 2013. Engaging Local Communities in Low Emissions Land-Use Planning: A Case Study from Laos. ECOLOGY AND SOCIETY, 18(2). https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-05362-180209 · Galudra, G., van Noordwijk, M., Agung, P., Suyanto, S., & Pradhan, U. 2014. Migrants, land markets and carbon emissions in Jambi, Indonesia: Land tenure change and the prospect of emission reduction. MITIGATION AND ADAPTATION STRATEGIES FOR GLOBAL CHANGE, 19(6), 715–731. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11027-013-9512-9 · Sawathvong, S., & Hyakumura, K. 2024. A Comparison of the Free, Prior, and Informed Consent (FPIC) Guidelines and the “Implementation of Governance, Forest Landscapes, and Livelihoods” Project in Lao PDR: The FPIC Team Composition and the Implementation Process. Land, 13(4), 408. https://doi.org/10.3390/land13040408 |
| E-learning modules | · FAO e-learning course: Addressing Disputes and Conflicts over the Tenure of Natural Resources |
| Case studies/ examples | · FAO case study: Applying mediation in customary land tenure disputes - Lessons from Eswatini |
| Academic publications | · Antoniazzi, C. T. 2023. Strengthening the complaint mechanisms of multilateral climate funds and carbon markets: A critical step towards a human rights‐based green transition. Review of European, Comparative & International Environmental Law, 32(2), 310–320. https://doi.org/10.1111/reel.12489 · Krul, K., Ho, P., & Yang, X. 2021. Land titling as a conflict remedy or driver? Analyzing institutional outcomes through latent and manifest conflicts in China’s forest sector. LAND USE POLICY, 100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2020.104880 · Lawlor, K., Weinthal, E., & Lander, L. 2010. Institutions and Policies to Protect Rural Livelihoods in REDD plus Regimes. GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL POLITICS, 10(4), 1-+. https://doi.org/10.1162/GLEP_a_00028 |